Shifting the Burden: Patterns in American Military Fatalities From World War II to the Global War On Terror

How have the patterns of American military sacrifice changed throughout the 20th century, and how have said changes influenced our politics in the current year? This question has lingered in my mind for years. While it is a question tangentially related to my dissertation research, it has been a distraction that I cannot shake. I’ve written on this topic for Antiwar.com and on this blog. In both pieces, I argued a thesis that I still hold, that the sectional, economic, and racial disparities in military sacrifice have led to our current political strife.

But what about the past? How did we get here? Assuming that the latter is true, is it a new phenomenon? To answer it, I have, over the last few months, analyzed military fatality data available through the Defense Casualty Analysis System (DCAS) for the Global War on Terror (GWOT), the Vietnam War, as well as the Korean War. Yet, to really flesh this thing out, I needed records for the Second World War…and those are surprisingly difficult to obtain, at least in a transcribed form.

So I decided to do it myself and hand-jammed the county tabulations in the “WWII Army and Army Air Force Casualties” records currently available in pdf form from the National Archives. The records contain 3,123 county figures for all 48 states plus Washington, D.C., and total up to 307,757 U.S. Army and U.S. Army Air Forces killed and missing in action. I should note that the records also contain the names and geographic tabulations of those who hailed from America’s various territories (including Hawaii and Alaska).

These records do not contain figures for those who served within the Department of the Navy, which includes sailors, marines, and coastguardsmen. While the Navy records do list individuals and their street addresses, they do not offer county-level tabulations. I have, however, digitized the Navy Department’s state records and posted a CSV file with them and the Department of the Army figures. The said file is available on my GitHub.

Attempting a long-term analysis of county-level military fatalities without data from the Navy is, in the parlance of our times, problematic. The NARA records record that 66,370 sailors, marines, and coastguardmen were killed in the war. But there’s no way that I can, as a single person, transcribe every name and then geocode every address.

Spoiler alert: we’re still going to proceed, but before doing so, I’d like to pause and note that according to these datasets, 17.9% of American lives were lost during the war came from those who served within the Department of the Navy. They were not spread out evenly as 19 states endured slanted naval losses above the national average, including some highly populated states like California (graphic 1).

Graphic 1: This graphic depicts the military fatalities endured by the states in total losses and the relative number of deaths lost in naval service during World War II. Each dot represents a state that is colorized by region and sized by the number of total wartime fatalities (both Army and Navy). Each state is located on an x-axis that shows what percentage of that combined total was lost in naval service. The y-axis depicts the per-100k loss.

Even with incomplete records, that is, only those county-level statistics from the Department of the Army, I think we can still proceed with our inquiry. To make sense of the fatality records, I analyzed them against demographic data from the U.S. Census and the “1915-1941 Vital Statistics: Natality & Mortality Data [States & Counties]” made available through the National Historical Geographic Information System.1

Generating per capita statistics for the Department of the Army losses during the Second World War yields the following results (see interactive table below).

The table lists the county, state, and number of Army fatalities per 100k losses and the county’s percentage difference from the national per 100k (233.455). If you sort the records by the number of losses, unsurprisingly, the most populous county in 1940, Cook County, which contains Chicago, is at the top of the list. But, what is different from subsequent wars (to varying degrees, as we shall see) is that these highly populated counties all meet, exceed, or at the least come close to the national per 100k.

CountyStateNumberPopulation in 1940Fatalities Per 100kDifference from National Per 100k
AutaugaAlabama3220977152.565.3%
BaldwinAlabama4432324136.158.3%
BarbourAlabama3632722110.047.1%
BibbAlabama3920155193.582.9%
BlountAlabama4429490149.263.9%
BullockAlabama2019810101.043.2%
ButlerAlabama5832447178.876.6%
CalhounAlabama16963319266.9114.3%
ChambersAlabama5842146137.658.9%
CherokeeAlabama2919928145.562.3%
ChiltonAlabama4927955175.375.1%
ChoctawAlabama3120195153.565.8%
ClarkeAlabama3827636137.558.9%
ClayAlabama2716907159.768.4%
CleburneAlabama2213629161.469.1%
CoffeeAlabama5231987162.669.6%
ColbertAlabama7434093217.193.0%
ConecuhAlabama2725489105.945.4%
CoosaAlabama3013460222.995.5%
CovingtonAlabama8842417207.588.9%
CrenshawAlabama3623631152.365.3%
CullmanAlabama11647343245.0105.0%
DaleAlabama3522685154.366.1%
DallasAlabama7155245128.555.1%
De KalbAlabama10343075239.1102.4%
ElmoreAlabama6934546199.785.6%
EscambiaAlabama6030671195.683.8%
EtowahAlabama14372580197.084.4%
FayetteAlabama5221651240.2102.9%
FranklinAlabama6927552250.4107.3%
GenevaAlabama5529172188.580.8%
GreeneAlabama101918552.122.3%
HaleAlabama2625533101.843.6%
HenryAlabama2321912105.045.0%
HoustonAlabama7345665159.968.5%
JacksonAlabama10641802253.6108.6%
JeffersonAlabama874459930190.081.4%
LamarAlabama3919708197.984.8%
LauderdaleAlabama9046230194.783.4%
LawrenceAlabama4327880154.266.1%
LeeAlabama6236455170.172.9%
LimestoneAlabama5935642165.570.9%
LowndesAlabama152266166.228.4%
MaconAlabama2827654101.343.4%
MadisonAlabama13266317199.085.3%
MarengoAlabama293573681.234.8%
MarionAlabama7428776257.2110.2%
MarshallAlabama10242395240.6103.1%
MobileAlabama249141974175.475.1%
MonroeAlabama242946581.534.9%
MontgomeryAlabama209114420182.778.2%
MorganAlabama11048148228.597.9%
PerryAlabama212661078.933.8%
PickensAlabama4027671144.661.9%
PikeAlabama3632493110.847.5%
RandolphAlabama5425516211.690.7%
RussellAlabama5135775142.661.1%
ShelbyAlabama4128962141.660.6%
St ClairAlabama6327336230.598.7%
SumterAlabama212732176.932.9%
TalladegaAlabama13251832254.7109.1%
TallapoosaAlabama5935270167.371.7%
TuscaloosaAlabama14976036196.083.9%
WalkerAlabama15064201233.6100.1%
WashingtonAlabama3116188191.582.0%
WilcoxAlabama3426279129.455.4%
WinstonAlabama4218746224.096.0%
ArkansasArkansas5224437212.891.1%
AshleyArkansas5226785194.183.2%
BaxterArkansas3010281291.8125.0%
BentonArkansas9936148273.9117.3%
BooneArkansas4715860296.3126.9%
BradleyArkansas3918097215.592.3%
CalhounArkansas299636301.0128.9%
CarrollArkansas3614737244.3104.6%
ChicotArkansas3227452116.649.9%
ClarkArkansas4924402200.886.0%
ClayArkansas6528386229.098.1%
CleburneArkansas2613134198.084.8%
ClevelandArkansas2212570175.075.0%
ColumbiaArkansas4829822161.068.9%
ConwayArkansas3221536148.663.6%
CraigheadArkansas10047200211.990.8%
CrawfordArkansas6223920259.2111.0%
CrittendenArkansas254247358.925.2%
CrossArkansas5726046218.893.7%
DallasArkansas2214471152.065.1%
DeshaArkansas4627160169.472.5%
DrewArkansas3019831151.364.8%
FaulknerArkansas6225880239.6102.6%
FranklinArkansas3615683229.598.3%
FultonArkansas2710253263.3112.8%
GarlandArkansas9541664228.097.7%
GrantArkansas2410477229.198.1%
GreeneArkansas5030204165.570.9%
HempsteadArkansas5232770158.768.0%
Hot SpringArkansas5518916290.8124.5%
HowardArkansas3516621210.690.2%
IndependenceArkansas6225643241.8103.6%
IzardArkansas3412834264.9113.5%
JacksonArkansas5026427189.281.0%
JeffersonArkansas8665101132.156.6%
JohnsonArkansas3618795191.582.0%
LafayetteArkansas1916851112.848.3%
LawrenceArkansas4722651207.588.9%
LeeArkansas242681089.538.3%
LincolnArkansas2819709142.160.9%
Little RiverArkansas3115932194.683.3%
LoganArkansas6025967231.199.0%
LonokeArkansas5529802184.679.1%
MadisonArkansas2914531199.685.5%
MarionArkansas179464179.676.9%
MillerArkansas5531874172.673.9%
MississippiArkansas11580217143.461.4%
MonroeArkansas3321133156.266.9%
MontgomeryArkansas228876247.9106.2%
NevadaArkansas4319869216.492.7%
NewtonArkansas2310881211.490.5%
OuachitaArkansas5231151166.971.5%
PerryArkansas178392202.686.8%
PhillipsArkansas5345970115.349.4%
PikeArkansas2911786246.1105.4%
PoinsettArkansas8537670225.696.7%
PolkArkansas4715832296.9127.2%
PopeArkansas3525682136.358.4%
PrairieArkansas3415304222.295.2%
PulaskiArkansas327156085209.589.7%
RandolphArkansas3018319163.870.1%
SalineArkansas3819163198.384.9%
ScottArkansas2613300195.583.7%
SearcyArkansas2411942201.086.1%
SebastianArkansas15462809245.2105.0%
SevierArkansas3415248223.095.5%
SharpArkansas2711497234.8100.6%
St FrancisArkansas4136043113.848.7%
St.oneArkansas148603162.769.7%
UnionArkansas9450461186.379.8%
Van BurenArkansas3612518287.6123.2%
WashingtonArkansas10541114255.4109.4%
WhiteArkansas7637176204.487.6%
WoodruffArkansas3222133144.661.9%
YellArkansas4820970228.998.0%
ApacheArizona5124095211.790.7%
CochiseArizona11134627320.6137.3%
CoconinoArizona4918770261.1111.8%
GilaArizona8723867364.5156.1%
GrahamArizona4912113404.5173.3%
GreenleeArizona318698356.4152.7%
MaricopaArizona514186193276.1118.2%
MohaveArizona228591256.1109.7%
NavajoArizona6425309252.9108.3%
PimaArizona23972838328.1140.6%
PinalArizona11528841398.7170.8%
Santa CruzArizona439482453.5194.3%
YavapaiArizona8026511301.8129.3%
YumaArizona8019326414.0177.3%
AlamedaCalifornia1266513011246.8105.7%
AlpineCalifornia1323309.6132.6%
AmadorCalifornia228973245.2105.0%
ButteCalifornia10742840249.8107.0%
CalaverasCalifornia218221255.4109.4%
ColusaCalifornia259788255.4109.4%
Contra CostaCalifornia320100450318.6136.5%
Del NorteCalifornia74745147.563.2%
El DoradoCalifornia2713229204.187.4%
FresnoCalifornia511178565286.2122.6%
GlennCalifornia3212195262.4112.4%
HumboldtCalifornia11445812248.8106.6%
ImperialCalifornia10759740179.176.7%
InyoCalifornia287625367.2157.3%
KernCalifornia340135124251.6107.8%
KingsCalifornia10435168295.7126.7%
LakeCalifornia268069322.2138.0%
LassenCalifornia4914479338.4145.0%
Los AngelesCalifornia66742785643239.6102.6%
MaderaCalifornia7923314338.9145.1%
MarinCalifornia10352907194.783.4%
MariposaCalifornia65605107.045.9%
MendocinoCalifornia5427864193.883.0%
MercedCalifornia10346988219.293.9%
ModocCalifornia238713264.0113.1%
MonoCalifornia112299478.5205.0%
MontereyCalifornia24073032328.6140.8%
NapaCalifornia5728503200.085.7%
NevadaCalifornia4219283217.893.3%
OrangeCalifornia334130760255.4109.4%
PlacerCalifornia7528108266.8114.3%
PlumasCalifornia4911548424.3181.8%
RiversideCalifornia314105524297.6127.5%
SacramentoCalifornia441170333258.9110.9%
San BenitoCalifornia3611392316.0135.4%
San BernardinoCalifornia441161108273.7117.3%
San DiegoCalifornia775289348267.8114.7%
San FranciscoCalifornia1365634536215.192.1%
San JoaquinCalifornia283134207210.990.3%
San Luis ObispoCalifornia8933246267.7114.7%
San MateoCalifornia220111782196.884.3%
Santa BarbaraCalifornia15370555216.992.9%
Santa ClaraCalifornia441174949252.1108.0%
Santa CruzCalifornia8845057195.383.7%
ShastaCalifornia6928800239.6102.6%
SierraCalifornia123025396.7169.9%
SiskiyouCalifornia7228598251.8107.8%
SolanoCalifornia15049118305.4130.8%
SonomaCalifornia16569052239.0102.4%
St.anislausCalifornia17874866237.8101.8%
SutterCalifornia6118680326.6139.9%
TehamaCalifornia1714316118.750.9%
TrinityCalifornia93970226.797.1%
TulareCalifornia246107152229.698.3%
TuolumneCalifornia2610887238.8102.3%
VenturaCalifornia21669685310.0132.8%
YoloCalifornia7227243264.3113.2%
YubaCalifornia4517034264.2113.2%
AdamsColorado4222481186.880.0%
AlamosaColorado3410484324.3138.9%
ArapahoeColorado6432150199.185.3%
ArchuletaColorado173806446.7191.3%
BacaColorado146207225.696.6%
BentColorado259653259.0110.9%
BoulderColorado8837438235.1100.7%
ChaffeeColorado188109222.095.1%
CheyenneColorado92964303.6130.1%
Clear CreekColorado93784237.8101.9%
ConejosColorado3111648266.1114.0%
CostillaColorado117533146.062.5%
CrowleyColorado225398407.6174.6%
CusterColorado72270308.4132.1%
DeltaColorado4416470267.2114.4%
DenverColorado786322412243.8104.4%
DoloresColorado1195851.121.9%
DouglasColorado73496200.285.8%
EagleColorado75361130.655.9%
ElbertColorado3546054.923.5%
El PasoColorado14154025261.0111.8%
FremontColorado5319742268.5115.0%
GarfieldColorado2910560274.6117.6%
GilpinColorado1162561.526.4%
GrandColorado143587390.3167.2%
GunnisonColorado166192258.4110.7%
HinsdaleColorado2349573.1245.5%
HuerfanoColorado4216088261.1111.8%
JacksonColorado61798333.7142.9%
JeffersonColorado5730725185.579.5%
KiowaColorado152793537.1230.0%
Kit CarsonColorado167512213.091.2%
LakeColorado196883276.0118.2%
La PlataColorado3915494251.7107.8%
LarimerColorado7735539216.792.8%
Las AnimasColorado8132369250.2107.2%
LincolnColorado175882289.0123.8%
LoganColorado3918370212.390.9%
MesaColorado7333791216.092.5%
MineralColorado1975102.643.9%
MoffatColorado155086294.9126.3%
MontezumaColorado2010463191.181.9%
MontroseColorado4515418291.9125.0%
MorganColorado5017214290.5124.4%
OteroColorado3923571165.570.9%
OurayColorado42089191.582.0%
ParkColorado73272213.991.6%
PhillipsColorado184948363.8155.8%
PitkinColorado21836108.946.7%
ProwersColorado4412304357.6153.2%
PuebloColorado15168870219.393.9%
Rio BlancoColorado142943475.7203.8%
Rio GrandeColorado3012404241.9103.6%
RouttColorado2510525237.5101.7%
SaguacheColorado146173226.897.1%
San JuanColorado31439208.589.3%
San MiguelColorado83664218.393.5%
SedgwickColorado95294170.072.8%
SummitColorado21754114.048.8%
TellerColorado156463232.199.4%
WashingtonColorado118336132.056.5%
WeldColorado13663747213.391.4%
YumaColorado3012102247.9106.2%
FairfieldConnecticut1097418384262.2112.3%
HartfordConnecticut1238450189275.0117.8%
LitchfieldConnecticut23287041266.5114.2%
MiddlesexConnecticut13655999242.9104.0%
New HavenConnecticut1143484316236.0101.1%
New LondonConnecticut250125224199.685.5%
TollandConnecticut6631866207.188.7%
WindhamConnecticut14756223261.5112.0%
District Of ColumbiaDistrict of Columbia3029663091456.8195.7%
KentDelaware5934441171.373.4%
New CastleDelaware392179562218.393.5%
SussexDelaware9152502173.374.2%
AlachuaFlorida5938607152.865.5%
BakerFlorida186510276.5118.4%
BayFlorida5620686270.7116.0%
BradfordFlorida178717195.083.5%
BrevardFlorida2616142161.169.0%
BrowardFlorida5039794125.653.8%
CalhounFlorida248218292.0125.1%
CharlotteFlorida83663218.493.6%
CitrusFlorida165846273.7117.2%
ClayFlorida136468201.086.1%
CollierFlorida85102156.867.2%
ColumbiaFlorida2716859160.268.6%
De SotoFlorida137792166.871.5%
DixieFlorida107018142.561.0%
DuvalFlorida392210143186.579.9%
EscambiaFlorida12474667166.171.1%
FlaglerFlorida53008166.271.2%
FranklinFlorida115991183.678.6%
GadsdenFlorida4331450136.758.6%
GilchristFlorida94250211.890.7%
GladesFlorida62745218.693.6%
GulfFlorida176951244.6104.8%
HamiltonFlorida139778133.056.9%
HardeeFlorida2510158246.1105.4%
HendryFlorida165237305.5130.9%
HernandoFlorida155641265.9113.9%
HighlandsFlorida289246302.8129.7%
HillsboroughFlorida363180148201.586.3%
HolmesFlorida3515447226.697.1%
Indian RiverFlorida168957178.676.5%
JacksonFlorida5434428156.867.2%
JeffersonFlorida91203274.832.0%
LafayetteFlorida64405136.258.3%
LakeFlorida5327255194.583.3%
LeeFlorida4317488245.9105.3%
LeonFlorida5631646177.075.8%
LevyFlorida2312550183.378.5%
LibertyFlorida103752266.5114.2%
MadisonFlorida1916190117.450.3%
ManateeFlorida4626098176.375.5%
MarionFlorida4431243140.860.3%
MartinFlorida76295111.247.6%
DadeFlorida503267739187.980.5%
MonroeFlorida3014078213.191.3%
NassauFlorida1510826138.659.3%
OkaloosaFlorida3412900263.6112.9%
OkeechobeeFlorida73000233.399.9%
OrangeFlorida17370074246.9105.8%
OsceolaFlorida1410119138.459.3%
Palm BeachFlorida12279989152.565.3%
PascoFlorida2913981207.488.8%
PinellasFlorida13891852150.264.4%
PolkFlorida20086665230.898.9%
PutnamFlorida2518698133.757.3%
Santa RosaFlorida2816085174.174.6%
SarasotaFlorida3316106204.987.8%
SeminoleFlorida3722304165.971.1%
St JohnsFlorida4120012204.987.8%
St LucieFlorida2011871168.572.2%
SumterFlorida1911041172.173.7%
SuwanneeFlorida2917073169.972.8%
TaylorFlorida1611565138.359.3%
UnionFlorida97094126.954.3%
VolusiaFlorida8753710162.069.4%
WakullaFlorida85463146.462.7%
WaltonFlorida3114246217.693.2%
WashingtonFlorida2512302203.287.0%
ApplingGeorgia3314497227.697.5%
AtkinsonGeorgia127093169.272.5%
BaconGeorgia158096185.379.4%
BakerGeorgia5734468.129.2%
BaldwinGeorgia2924190119.951.4%
BanksGeorgia118733126.054.0%
BarrowGeorgia4013064306.2131.2%
BartowGeorgia4725283185.979.6%
Ben HillGeorgia2214523151.564.9%
BerrienGeorgia1815370117.150.2%
BibbGeorgia16083783191.081.8%
BleckleyGeorgia229655227.997.6%
BrantleyGeorgia176871247.4106.0%
BrooksGeorgia2320497112.248.1%
BryanGeorgia126288190.881.7%
BullochGeorgia3326010126.954.3%
BurkeGeorgia242652090.538.8%
ButtsGeorgia199182206.988.6%
CalhounGeorgia1610438153.365.7%
CamdenGeorgia75910118.450.7%
CandlerGeorgia119103120.851.8%
CarrollGeorgia7834156228.497.8%
CatoosaGeorgia1912199155.866.7%
CharltonGeorgia175256323.4138.5%
ChathamGeorgia223117970189.081.0%
ChattahoocheeGeorgia121513879.334.0%
ChattoogaGeorgia4318532232.099.4%
CherokeeGeorgia4220126208.789.4%
ClarkeGeorgia5928398207.889.0%
ClayGeorgia97064127.454.6%
ClaytonGeorgia2511655214.591.9%
ClinchGeorgia76437108.746.6%
CobbGeorgia7038272182.978.3%
CoffeeGeorgia4221541195.083.5%
ColquittGeorgia5833012175.775.3%
ColumbiaGeorgia129433127.254.5%
CookGeorgia3011919251.7107.8%
CowetaGeorgia4226972155.766.7%
CrawfordGeorgia127128168.472.1%
CrispGeorgia2417540136.858.6%
DadeGeorgia135894220.694.5%
DawsonGeorgia94479200.986.1%
DecaturGeorgia4922234220.494.4%
DekalbGeorgia12086942138.059.1%
DodgeGeorgia3321022157.067.2%
DoolyGeorgia2516886148.163.4%
DoughertyGeorgia5528565192.582.5%
DouglasGeorgia1510053149.263.9%
EarlyGeorgia141867975.032.1%
EcholsGeorgia42964135.057.8%
EffinghamGeorgia139646134.857.7%
ElbertGeorgia3119618158.067.7%
EmanuelGeorgia3223517136.158.3%
EvansGeorgia107401135.157.9%
FanninGeorgia3014752203.487.1%
FayetteGeorgia148170171.473.4%
FloydGeorgia11556141204.887.7%
ForsythGeorgia1311322114.849.2%
FranklinGeorgia2415612153.765.8%
FultonGeorgia883392886224.796.3%
GilmerGeorgia269001288.9123.7%
GlascockGeorgia104547219.994.2%
GlynnGeorgia6021920273.7117.2%
GordonGeorgia4318445233.199.9%
GradyGeorgia3319654167.971.9%
GreeneGeorgia2713709197.084.4%
GwinnettGeorgia5729087196.083.9%
HabershamGeorgia3014771203.187.0%
HallGeorgia9934822284.3121.8%
HancockGeorgia1812764141.060.4%
HaralsonGeorgia2814377194.883.4%
HarrisGeorgia1611428140.060.0%
HartGeorgia2615512167.671.8%
HeardGeorgia128610139.459.7%
HenryGeorgia2015119132.356.7%
HoustonGeorgia1211303106.245.5%
IrwinGeorgia101293677.333.1%
JacksonGeorgia4820089238.9102.3%
JasperGeorgia198772216.692.8%
Jeff DavisGeorgia138841147.063.0%
JeffersonGeorgia3220040159.768.4%
JenkinsGeorgia1611843135.157.9%
JohnsonGeorgia1812953139.059.5%
JonesGeorgia108331120.051.4%
LamarGeorgia2310091227.997.6%
LanierGeorgia135632230.898.9%
LaurensGeorgia7633606226.296.9%
LeeGeorgia87837102.143.7%
LibertyGeorgia128595139.659.8%
LincolnGeorgia7704299.442.6%
LongGeorgia64086146.862.9%
LowndesGeorgia5031860156.967.2%
LumpkinGeorgia146223225.096.4%
MaconGeorgia4415947275.9118.2%
MadisonGeorgia3213431238.3102.1%
MarionGeorgia5695471.930.8%
McduffieGeorgia3110878285.0122.1%
MeriwetherGeorgia3622055163.269.9%
MillerGeorgia129998120.051.4%
MitchellGeorgia2723261116.149.7%
MonroeGeorgia1110749102.343.8%
MontgomeryGeorgia7966872.431.0%
MorganGeorgia2012713157.367.4%
MurrayGeorgia2311137206.588.5%
MuscogeeGeorgia20775494274.2117.5%
NewtonGeorgia3618576193.883.0%
OconeeGeorgia167576211.290.5%
OglethorpeGeorgia61243048.320.7%
PauldingGeorgia2112832163.770.1%
PeachGeorgia2010378192.782.5%
PickensGeorgia139136142.361.0%
PierceGeorgia2411800203.487.1%
PikeGeorgia1810375173.574.3%
PolkGeorgia6428467224.896.3%
PulaskiGeorgia129829122.152.3%
PutnamGeorgia128514140.960.4%
QuitmanGeorgia83435232.999.8%
RabunGeorgia207821255.7109.5%
RandolphGeorgia121660972.230.9%
RichmondGeorgia13881863168.672.2%
RockdaleGeorgia147724181.377.6%
SchleyGeorgia85033159.068.1%
ScrevenGeorgia3120353152.365.2%
SeminoleGeorgia138492153.165.6%
SpaldingGeorgia6228427218.193.4%
St.ephensGeorgia3812972292.9125.5%
St.ewartGeorgia101060394.340.4%
SumterGeorgia3524502142.861.2%
TalbotGeorgia5814161.426.3%
TaliaferroGeorgia4627863.727.3%
TattnallGeorgia2616243160.168.6%
TaylorGeorgia1710768157.967.6%
TelfairGeorgia2615145171.773.5%
TerrellGeorgia2416675143.961.7%
ThomasGeorgia4931289156.667.1%
TiftGeorgia3418599182.878.3%
ToombsGeorgia3116952182.978.3%
TownsGeorgia134925264.0113.1%
TreutlenGeorgia97632117.950.5%
TroupGeorgia8443879191.482.0%
TurnerGeorgia1610846147.563.2%
TwiggsGeorgia5911754.823.5%
UnionGeorgia147680182.378.1%
UpsonGeorgia4525064179.576.9%
WalkerGeorgia8331024267.5114.6%
WaltonGeorgia3120777149.263.9%
WareGeorgia5827929207.789.0%
WarrenGeorgia1310236127.054.4%
WashingtonGeorgia3424230140.360.1%
WayneGeorgia2113122160.068.6%
WebsterGeorgia1472621.29.1%
WheelerGeorgia178535199.285.3%
WhiteGeorgia126417187.080.1%
WhitfieldGeorgia5626105214.591.9%
WilcoxGeorgia2712755211.790.7%
WilkesGeorgia91508459.725.6%
WilkinsonGeorgia1211025108.846.6%
WorthGeorgia192137488.938.1%
AdairIowa3413196257.7110.4%
AdamsIowa2710156265.9113.9%
AllamakeeIowa3017184174.674.8%
AppanooseIowa6524245268.1114.8%
AudubonIowa3111790262.9112.6%
BentonIowa5422879236.0101.1%
Black HawkIowa20179946251.4107.7%
BooneIowa6629782221.694.9%
BremerIowa2917932161.769.3%
BuchananIowa3320991157.267.3%
Buena VistaIowa3519838176.475.6%
ButlerIowa3817986211.390.5%
CalhounIowa4317584244.5104.7%
CarrollIowa5022770219.694.1%
CassIowa4718647252.1108.0%
CedarIowa3516884207.388.8%
Cerro GordoIowa11243845255.4109.4%
CherokeeIowa3719258192.182.3%
ChickasawIowa3015227197.084.4%
ClarkeIowa2010233195.483.7%
ClayIowa3017762168.972.3%
ClaytonIowa3624334147.963.4%
ClintonIowa10144722225.896.7%
CrawfordIowa5620538272.7116.8%
DallasIowa5524649223.195.6%
DavisIowa2711136242.5103.9%
DecaturIowa4714012335.4143.7%
DelawareIowa3518487189.381.1%
Des MoinesIowa10536804285.3122.2%
DickinsonIowa2312185188.880.9%
DubuqueIowa16263768254.0108.8%
EmmetIowa4013406298.4127.8%
FayetteIowa5529151188.780.8%
FloydIowa4920169242.9104.1%
FranklinIowa2416379146.562.8%
FremontIowa4614645314.1134.5%
GreeneIowa4616599277.1118.7%
GrundyIowa3413518251.5107.7%
GuthrieIowa3817210220.894.6%
HamiltonIowa4619922230.998.9%
HancockIowa2615402168.872.3%
HardinIowa3222530142.060.8%
HarrisonIowa4522767197.784.7%
HenryIowa3917994216.792.8%
HowardIowa2913531214.391.8%
HumboldtIowa3213459237.8101.8%
IdaIowa2311047208.289.2%
IowaIowa3317016193.983.1%
JacksonIowa2719181140.860.3%
JasperIowa6431496203.287.0%
JeffersonIowa4315762272.8116.9%
JohnsonIowa7533191226.096.8%
JonesIowa3319950165.470.9%
KeokukIowa4318406233.6100.1%
KossuthIowa6926630259.1111.0%
LeeIowa9841074238.6102.2%
LinnIowa21389142238.9102.4%
LouisaIowa2511384219.694.1%
LucasIowa2114571144.161.7%
LyonIowa2715374175.675.2%
MadisonIowa2314525158.367.8%
MahaskaIowa5426485203.987.3%
MarionIowa3527019129.555.5%
MarshallIowa5235406146.962.9%
MillsIowa3115064205.888.1%
MitchellIowa3214121226.697.1%
MononaIowa4118238224.896.3%
MonroeIowa3214553219.994.2%
MontgomeryIowa4615697293.0125.5%
MuscatineIowa6431296204.587.6%
O'brienIowa4219293217.793.2%
OsceolaIowa1310607122.652.5%
PageIowa5624887225.096.4%
Palo AltoIowa4416170272.1116.6%
PlymouthIowa5423502229.898.4%
PocahontasIowa3316266202.986.9%
PolkIowa450195835229.898.4%
PottawattamieIowa15266756227.797.5%
PoweshiekIowa4118758218.693.6%
RinggoldIowa2811137251.4107.7%
SacIowa2817639158.768.0%
ScottIowa16884748198.284.9%
ShelbyIowa2916720173.474.3%
SiouxIowa6627209242.6103.9%
St.oryIowa9533434284.1121.7%
TamaIowa3922428173.974.5%
TaylorIowa2914258203.487.1%
UnionIowa3316280202.786.8%
Van BurenIowa3112053257.2110.2%
WapelloIowa9944280223.695.8%
WarrenIowa4717695265.6113.8%
WashingtonIowa5420055269.3115.3%
WayneIowa3113308232.999.8%
WebsterIowa9741521233.6100.1%
WinnebagoIowa3313972236.2101.2%
WinneshiekIowa3022263134.857.7%
WoodburyIowa234103627225.896.7%
WorthIowa2811449244.6104.8%
WrightIowa3920038194.683.4%
AdaIdaho11950401236.1101.1%
AdamsIdaho123407352.2150.9%
BannockIdaho8934759256.0109.7%
Bear LakeIdaho217911265.5113.7%
BenewahIdaho207332272.8116.8%
BinghamIdaho4921044232.899.7%
BlaineIdaho85295151.164.7%
BoiseIdaho92333385.8165.2%
BonnerIdaho4415667280.8120.3%
BonnevilleIdaho6925697268.5115.0%
BoundaryIdaho175987283.9121.6%
ButteIdaho41877213.191.3%
CamasIdaho61360441.2189.0%
CanyonIdaho11040987268.4115.0%
CaribouIdaho92284394.0168.8%
CassiaIdaho3614430249.5106.9%
ClarkIdaho51005497.5213.1%
ClearwaterIdaho278243327.6140.3%
CusterIdaho103549281.8120.7%
ElmoreIdaho155518271.8116.4%
FranklinIdaho1710229166.271.2%
FremontIdaho2310304223.295.6%
GemIdaho269544272.4116.7%
GoodingIdaho249257259.3111.1%
IdahoIdaho2412691189.181.0%
JeffersonIdaho2010762185.879.6%
JeromeIdaho469900464.6199.0%
KootenaiIdaho6622283296.2126.9%
LatahIdaho5418804287.2123.0%
LemhiIdaho206521306.7131.4%
LewisIdaho184666385.8165.2%
LincolnIdaho124230283.7121.5%
MadisonIdaho249186261.3111.9%
MinidokaIdaho269870263.4112.8%
Nez PerceIdaho6318873333.8143.0%
OneidaIdaho145417258.4110.7%
OwyheeIdaho105652176.975.8%
PayetteIdaho239511241.8103.6%
PowerIdaho153965378.3162.0%
ShoshoneIdaho5021230235.5100.9%
TetonIdaho113601305.5130.8%
Twin FallsIdaho8636403236.2101.2%
ValleyIdaho144035347.0148.6%
WashingtonIdaho268853293.7125.8%
AdamsIllinois12765229194.783.4%
AlexanderIllinois6425496251.0107.5%
BondIllinois4814540330.1141.4%
BooneIllinois2715202177.676.1%
BrownIllinois258053310.4133.0%
BureauIllinois8537600226.196.8%
CalhounIllinois218207255.9109.6%
CarrollIllinois3217987177.976.2%
CassIllinois3716425225.396.5%
ChampaignIllinois18170578256.5109.9%
ChristianIllinois8138564210.090.0%
ClarkIllinois3518842185.879.6%
ClayIllinois5018947263.9113.0%
ClintonIllinois4522912196.484.1%
ColesIllinois9538470246.9105.8%
CookIllinois97214063342239.2102.5%
CrawfordIllinois6121294286.5122.7%
CumberlandIllinois1911698162.469.6%
De KalbIllinois11734388340.2145.7%
De WittIllinois4218244230.298.6%
DouglasIllinois4817590272.9116.9%
Du PageIllinois253103480244.5104.7%
EdgarIllinois5524430225.196.4%
EdwardsIllinois118974122.652.5%
EffinghamIllinois6722034304.1130.3%
FayetteIllinois6629159226.397.0%
FordIllinois3115007206.688.5%
FranklinIllinois12953137242.8104.0%
FultonIllinois6844627152.465.3%
GallatinIllinois2311414201.586.3%
GreeneIllinois4320292211.990.8%
GrundyIllinois4418398239.2102.4%
HamiltonIllinois4513454334.5143.3%
HancockIllinois6526297247.2105.9%
HardinIllinois287759360.9154.6%
HendersonIllinois188949201.186.2%
HenryIllinois7443798169.072.4%
IroquoisIllinois6132496187.780.4%
JacksonIllinois8937920234.7100.5%
JasperIllinois4213431312.7133.9%
JeffersonIllinois11834375343.3147.0%
JerseyIllinois3313636242.0103.7%
Jo DaviessIllinois4919989245.1105.0%
JohnsonIllinois3010727279.7119.8%
KaneIllinois304130206233.5100.0%
KankakeeIllinois13160877215.292.2%
KendallIllinois2611105234.1100.3%
KnoxIllinois11352250216.392.6%
LakeIllinois257121094212.290.9%
La SalleIllinois25097801255.6109.5%
LawrenceIllinois6221075294.2126.0%
LeeIllinois8434604242.7104.0%
LivingstonIllinois8738838224.096.0%
LoganIllinois7129438241.2103.3%
MaconIllinois17684693207.889.0%
MacoupinIllinois10246304220.394.4%
MadisonIllinois346149349231.799.2%
MarionIllinois10247989212.591.0%
MarshallIllinois2813179212.591.0%
MasonIllinois4615358299.5128.3%
MassacIllinois3314937220.994.6%
McdonoughIllinois6526944241.2103.3%
MchenryIllinois8937311238.5102.2%
McleanIllinois16973930228.697.9%
MenardIllinois1510663140.760.3%
MercerIllinois4417701248.6106.5%
MonroeIllinois2012754156.867.2%
MontgomeryIllinois8734499252.2108.0%
MorganIllinois8036378219.994.2%
MoultrieIllinois3213477237.4101.7%
OgleIllinois6529869217.693.2%
PeoriaIllinois343153374223.695.8%
PerryIllinois4623438196.384.1%
PiattIllinois3914659266.0114.0%
PikeIllinois6125340240.7103.1%
PopeIllinois157999187.580.3%
PulaskiIllinois2615875163.870.2%
PutnamIllinois125289226.997.2%
RandolphIllinois6533608193.482.8%
RichlandIllinois4317137250.9107.5%
Rock IslandIllinois267113323235.6100.9%
SalineIllinois8038066210.290.0%
SangamonIllinois271117912229.898.4%
SchuylerIllinois2211430192.582.4%
ScottIllinois248176293.5125.7%
ShelbyIllinois6726290254.8109.2%
St.arkIllinois208881225.296.5%
St ClairIllinois349166899209.189.6%
St.ephensonIllinois8240646201.786.4%
TazewellIllinois10158362173.174.1%
UnionIllinois4221528195.183.6%
VermilionIllinois18486791212.090.8%
WabashIllinois3713724269.6115.5%
WarrenIllinois4521286211.490.6%
WashingtonIllinois2415801151.965.1%
WayneIllinois6022092271.6116.3%
WhiteIllinois5320027264.6113.4%
WhitesideIllinois11643338267.7114.7%
WillIllinois271114210237.3101.6%
WilliamsonIllinois11151424215.992.5%
WinnebagoIllinois285121178235.2100.7%
WoodfordIllinois5019124261.5112.0%
AdamsIndiana5421254254.1108.8%
AllenIndiana291155084187.680.4%
BartholomewIndiana6828276240.5103.0%
BentonIndiana4911117440.8188.8%
BlackfordIndiana3513783253.9108.8%
BooneIndiana4122081185.779.5%
BrownIndiana96189145.462.3%
CarrollIndiana4115410266.1114.0%
CassIndiana8836908238.4102.1%
ClarkIndiana9131020293.4125.7%
ClayIndiana6125365240.5103.0%
ClintonIndiana6328411221.795.0%
CrawfordIndiana3110171304.8130.6%
DaviessIndiana5926163225.596.6%
DearbornIndiana6223053268.9115.2%
DecaturIndiana3517722197.584.6%
De KalbIndiana4724756189.981.3%
DelawareIndiana15874963210.890.3%
DuboisIndiana4322579190.481.6%
ElkhartIndiana18172634249.2106.7%
FayetteIndiana4119411211.290.5%
FloydIndiana7835061222.595.3%
FountainIndiana4118299224.196.0%
FranklinIndiana2714412187.380.2%
FultonIndiana3415577218.393.5%
GibsonIndiana6630709214.992.1%
GrantIndiana11355813202.586.7%
GreeneIndiana6531330207.588.9%
HamiltonIndiana4824614195.083.5%
HancockIndiana3317302190.781.7%
HarrisonIndiana5317106309.8132.7%
HendricksIndiana3620151178.776.5%
HenryIndiana8740208216.492.7%
HowardIndiana11647752242.9104.1%
HuntingtonIndiana6729931223.895.9%
JacksonIndiana7226612270.6115.9%
JasperIndiana3414397236.2101.2%
JayIndiana5622601247.8106.1%
JeffersonIndiana3719912185.879.6%
JenningsIndiana3513680255.8109.6%
JohnsonIndiana5222493231.299.0%
KnoxIndiana10943973247.9106.2%
KosciuskoIndiana4629561155.666.7%
LagrangeIndiana2414352167.271.6%
LakeIndiana815293195278.0119.1%
La PorteIndiana18363660287.5123.1%
LawrenceIndiana7735045219.794.1%
MadisonIndiana22888575257.4110.3%
MarionIndiana1055460926228.998.0%
MarshallIndiana6325935242.9104.1%
MartinIndiana2310300223.395.7%
MiamiIndiana6627926236.3101.2%
MonroeIndiana9236534251.8107.9%
MontgomeryIndiana7027231257.1110.1%
MorganIndiana5719801287.9123.3%
NewtonIndiana3110775287.7123.2%
NobleIndiana4922776215.192.2%
OhioIndiana93782238.0101.9%
OrangeIndiana3817311219.594.0%
OwenIndiana1612090132.356.7%
ParkeIndiana3417358195.983.9%
PerryIndiana5017770281.4120.5%
PikeIndiana3017045176.075.4%
PorterIndiana4927836176.075.4%
PoseyIndiana5619183291.9125.0%
PulaskiIndiana4312056356.7152.8%
PutnamIndiana4920839235.1100.7%
RandolphIndiana5926766220.494.4%
RipleyIndiana3918898206.488.4%
RushIndiana3118927163.870.2%
ScottIndiana408978445.5190.8%
ShelbyIndiana5625953215.892.4%
SpencerIndiana4916211302.3129.5%
St.arkeIndiana1912258155.066.4%
St.eubenIndiana3713740269.3115.3%
St JosephIndiana430161823265.7113.8%
SullivanIndiana6327014233.299.9%
SwitzerlandIndiana168167195.983.9%
TippecanoeIndiana14651020286.2122.6%
TiptonIndiana2915135191.682.1%
UnionIndiana156017249.3106.8%
VanderburghIndiana298130783227.997.6%
VermillionIndiana5021787229.598.3%
VigoIndiana21199709211.690.6%
WabashIndiana5626601210.590.2%
WarrenIndiana259055276.1118.3%
WarrickIndiana5419435277.8119.0%
WashingtonIndiana6617008388.1166.2%
WayneIndiana13459229226.296.9%
WellsIndiana2819099146.662.8%
WhiteIndiana3617037211.390.5%
WhitleyIndiana3817001223.595.7%
AllenKansas3719874186.279.7%
AndersonKansas2611658223.095.5%
AtchisonKansas4522222202.586.7%
BarberKansas359073385.8165.2%
BartonKansas6425010255.9109.6%
BourbonKansas5020944238.7102.3%
BrownKansas4517395258.7110.8%
ButlerKansas10032013312.4133.8%
ChaseKansas156345236.4101.3%
ChautauquaKansas289233303.3129.9%
CherokeeKansas7729817258.2110.6%
CheyenneKansas106221160.768.9%
ClarkKansas124081294.0126.0%
ClayKansas2913281218.493.5%
CloudKansas3917247226.196.9%
CoffeyKansas2012278162.969.8%
ComancheKansas134412294.7126.2%
CowleyKansas8538139222.995.5%
CrawfordKansas12344191278.3119.2%
DecaturKansas237434309.4132.5%
DickinsonKansas5622929244.2104.6%
DoniphanKansas3012936231.999.3%
DouglasKansas7425171294.0125.9%
EdwardsKansas216377329.3141.1%
ElkKansas198180232.399.5%
EllisKansas4117508234.2100.3%
EllsworthKansas189855182.678.2%
FinneyKansas3210092317.1135.8%
FordKansas5517254318.8136.5%
FranklinKansas3420889162.869.7%
GearyKansas6515222427.0182.9%
GoveKansas124793250.4107.2%
GrahamKansas146071230.698.8%
GrantKansas51946256.9110.1%
GrayKansas164773335.2143.6%
GreeleyKansas101638610.5261.5%
GreenwoodKansas4116495248.6106.5%
HamiltonKansas112645415.9178.1%
HarperKansas2112068174.074.5%
HarveyKansas6721712308.6132.2%
HaskellKansas102088478.9205.1%
HodgemanKansas83535226.396.9%
JacksonKansas4313382321.3137.6%
JeffersonKansas3512718275.2117.9%
JewellKansas3011970250.6107.4%
JohnsonKansas6833327204.087.4%
KearnyKansas62525237.6101.8%
KingmanKansas3712001308.3132.1%
KiowaKansas105112195.683.8%
LabetteKansas7930352260.3111.5%
LaneKansas42821141.860.7%
LeavenworthKansas9341112226.296.9%
LincolnKansas288338335.8143.8%
LinnKansas2311969192.282.3%
LoganKansas213688569.4243.9%
LyonKansas9326424352.0150.8%
MarionKansas3718951195.283.6%
MarshallKansas3620986171.573.5%
McphersonKansas5824152240.1102.9%
MeadeKansas135522235.4100.8%
MiamiKansas3119489159.168.1%
MitchellKansas2411339211.790.7%
MontgomeryKansas13849729277.5118.9%
MorrisKansas4510363434.2186.0%
MortonKansas42186183.078.4%
NemahaKansas3116761185.079.2%
NeoshoKansas4822210216.192.6%
NessKansas166864233.199.8%
NortonKansas229831223.895.9%
OsageKansas3015118198.485.0%
OsborneKansas289835284.7121.9%
OttawaKansas249224260.2111.5%
PawneeKansas1810300174.874.9%
PhillipsKansas2010435191.782.1%
PottawatomieKansas3714015264.0113.1%
PrattKansas3512348283.4121.4%
RawlinsKansas106618151.164.7%
RenoKansas10952165209.089.5%
RepublicKansas2813124213.391.4%
RiceKansas4417213255.6109.5%
RileyKansas6220617300.7128.8%
RooksKansas208497235.4100.8%
RushKansas178285205.287.9%
RussellKansas4013464297.1127.3%
SalineKansas7029535237.0101.5%
ScottKansas93773238.5102.2%
SedgwickKansas397143311277.0118.7%
SewardKansas126540183.578.6%
ShawneeKansas17291247188.580.7%
SheridanKansas115312207.188.7%
ShermanKansas166421249.2106.7%
SmithKansas3110582293.0125.5%
St.affordKansas2510487238.4102.1%
St.antonKansas21443138.659.4%
St.evensKansas133193407.1174.4%
SumnerKansas7026163267.6114.6%
ThomasKansas226425342.4146.7%
TregoKansas195822326.3139.8%
WabaunseeKansas129219130.255.8%
WallaceKansas32216135.458.0%
WashingtonKansas4015921251.2107.6%
WichitaKansas2321851052.6450.9%
WilsonKansas3217723180.677.3%
WoodsonKansas268014324.4139.0%
WyandotteKansas364145071250.9107.5%
AdairKentucky4518566242.4103.8%
AllenKentucky3415496219.494.0%
AndersonKentucky278936302.1129.4%
BallardKentucky279480284.8122.0%
BarrenKentucky5227559188.780.8%
BathKentucky2911451253.3108.5%
BellKentucky9143812207.789.0%
BooneKentucky2610820240.3102.9%
BourbonKentucky3317932184.078.8%
BoydKentucky11845938256.9110.0%
BoyleKentucky3917075228.497.8%
BrackenKentucky219389223.795.8%
BreathittKentucky7823946325.7139.5%
BreckinridgeKentucky5117744287.4123.1%
BullittKentucky239511241.8103.6%
ButlerKentucky3314371229.698.4%
CaldwellKentucky2314499158.667.9%
CallowayKentucky3919041204.887.7%
CampbellKentucky17471918241.9103.6%
CarlisleKentucky257650326.8140.0%
CarrollKentucky248657277.2118.8%
CarterKentucky6025545234.9100.6%
CaseyKentucky4419962220.494.4%
ChristianKentucky4836129132.956.9%
ClarkKentucky4617988255.7109.5%
ClayKentucky6823901284.5121.9%
ClintonKentucky2410279233.5100.0%
CrittendenKentucky2912115239.4102.5%
CumberlandKentucky3511923293.6125.7%
DaviessKentucky12952335246.5105.6%
EdmonsonKentucky2711344238.0102.0%
ElliottKentucky258713286.9122.9%
EstillKentucky5117978283.7121.5%
FayetteKentucky20678899261.1111.8%
FlemingKentucky3813327285.1122.1%
FloydKentucky11752986220.894.6%
FranklinKentucky4623308197.484.5%
FultonKentucky3415413220.694.5%
GallatinKentucky94307209.089.5%
GarrardKentucky2311910193.182.7%
GrantKentucky179876172.173.7%
GravesKentucky7131763223.595.7%
GraysonKentucky4917562279.0119.5%
GreenKentucky2312321186.780.0%
GreenupKentucky6124917244.8104.9%
HancockKentucky106807146.962.9%
HardinKentucky8029108274.8117.7%
HarlanKentucky18375275243.1104.1%
HarrisonKentucky3115124205.087.8%
HartKentucky3617239208.889.5%
HendersonKentucky7027020259.1111.0%
HenryKentucky3012220245.5105.2%
HickmanKentucky189142196.984.3%
HopkinsKentucky9337789246.1105.4%
JacksonKentucky3416339208.189.1%
JeffersonKentucky896385392232.599.6%
JessamineKentucky2512174205.488.0%
JohnsonKentucky7325771283.3121.3%
KentonKentucky22593139241.6103.5%
KnottKentucky6820007339.9145.6%
KnoxKentucky8131029261.0111.8%
LarueKentucky229622228.697.9%
LaurelKentucky6525640253.5108.6%
LawrenceKentucky4217275243.1104.1%
LeeKentucky4210860386.7165.7%
LeslieKentucky4014981267.0114.4%
LetcherKentucky11940592293.2125.6%
LewisKentucky4815686306.0131.1%
LincolnKentucky3619859181.377.7%
LivingstonKentucky229127241.0103.3%
LoganKentucky4523345192.882.6%
LyonKentucky159067165.470.9%
MadisonKentucky5428541189.281.0%
MagoffinKentucky3817490217.393.1%
MarionKentucky3216913189.281.0%
MarshallKentucky4316602259.0110.9%
MartinKentucky2710970246.1105.4%
MasonKentucky5119066267.5114.6%
MccrackenKentucky10248534210.290.0%
MccrearyKentucky3116451188.480.7%
McleanKentucky2711446235.9101.0%
MeadeKentucky238827260.6111.6%
MenifeeKentucky165691281.1120.4%
MercerKentucky6714629458.0196.2%
MetcalfeKentucky1710853156.667.1%
MonroeKentucky3614070255.9109.6%
MontgomeryKentucky3012280244.3104.6%
MorganKentucky4316827255.5109.5%
MuhlenbergKentucky8137554215.792.4%
NelsonKentucky3718004205.588.0%
NicholasKentucky208617232.199.4%
OhioKentucky4324421176.175.4%
OldhamKentucky1410716130.656.0%
OwenKentucky1710942155.466.6%
OwsleyKentucky238957256.8110.0%
PendletonKentucky1910392182.878.3%
PerryKentucky14447828301.1129.0%
PikeKentucky17671122247.5106.0%
PowellKentucky207671260.7111.7%
PulaskiKentucky11939863298.5127.9%
RobertsonKentucky63419175.575.2%
RockcastleKentucky4017165233.099.8%
RowanKentucky4912734384.8164.8%
RussellKentucky3013615220.394.4%
ScottKentucky3814314265.5113.7%
ShelbyKentucky3717759208.389.2%
SimpsonKentucky1911752161.769.3%
SpencerKentucky156757222.095.1%
TaylorKentucky2913556213.991.6%
ToddKentucky1814234126.554.2%
TriggKentucky1912784148.663.7%
TrimbleKentucky115601196.484.1%
UnionKentucky3817411218.393.5%
WarrenKentucky8436631229.398.2%
WashingtonKentucky2812965216.092.5%
WayneKentucky4017204232.599.6%
WebsterKentucky3419198177.175.9%
WhitleyKentucky10233186307.4131.7%
WolfeKentucky219997210.190.0%
WoodfordKentucky3011847253.2108.5%
AcadiaLouisiana8646260185.979.6%
AllenLouisiana3117540176.775.7%
AscensionLouisiana3121215146.162.6%
AssumptionLouisiana2318541124.053.1%
AvoyellesLouisiana7439256188.580.7%
BeauregardLouisiana2714847181.977.9%
BienvilleLouisiana3623933150.464.4%
BossierLouisiana293316287.437.5%
CaddoLouisiana320150203213.091.3%
CalcasieuLouisiana13556506238.9102.3%
CaldwellLouisiana2212046182.678.2%
CameronLouisiana177203236.0101.1%
CatahoulaLouisiana3014618205.287.9%
ClaiborneLouisiana5429855180.977.5%
ConcordiaLouisiana121456282.435.3%
DesotoLouisiana4431803138.459.3%
East Baton RougeLouisiana15088415169.772.7%
East CarrollLouisiana181902394.640.5%
East FelicianaLouisiana111803961.026.1%
EvangelineLouisiana3430497111.547.8%
FranklinLouisiana5032382154.466.1%
GrantLouisiana3515933219.794.1%
IberiaLouisiana323718386.136.9%
IbervilleLouisiana3827721137.158.7%
JacksonLouisiana4817807269.6115.5%
JeffersonLouisiana8950427176.575.6%
Jefferson DavisLouisiana4424191181.977.9%
LafayetteLouisiana8143941184.379.0%
LafourcheLouisiana5738615147.663.2%
La SalleLouisiana2910959264.6113.4%
LincolnLouisiana4124790165.470.8%
LivingstonLouisiana3217790179.977.0%
MadisonLouisiana181844397.641.8%
MorehouseLouisiana4027571145.162.1%
NatchitochesLouisiana7140997173.274.2%
OrleansLouisiana773494537156.367.0%
OuachitaLouisiana11459168192.782.5%
PlaqueminesLouisiana1412318113.748.7%
Pointe CoupeeLouisiana3024004125.053.5%
RapidesLouisiana14673370199.085.2%
Red RiverLouisiana3415881214.191.7%
RichlandLouisiana5228829180.477.3%
SabineLouisiana6823586288.3123.5%
St BernardLouisiana117280151.164.7%
St CharlesLouisiana1612321129.955.6%
St HelenaLouisiana4954241.918.0%
St JamesLouisiana2716596162.769.7%
St John The BaptistLouisiana2314766155.866.7%
St LandryLouisiana8171481113.348.5%
St MartinLouisiana3226394121.251.9%
St MaryLouisiana5931458187.680.3%
St TammanyLouisiana3723624156.667.1%
TangipahoaLouisiana7845519171.473.4%
TensasLouisiana141594087.837.6%
TerrebonneLouisiana6435880178.476.4%
UnionLouisiana3020943143.261.4%
VermilionLouisiana8237750217.293.0%
VernonLouisiana4519142235.1100.7%
WashingtonLouisiana6234443180.077.1%
WebsterLouisiana4433676130.756.0%
West Baton RougeLouisiana91126379.934.2%
West CarrollLouisiana5019252259.7111.2%
West FelicianaLouisiana111172093.940.2%
WinnLouisiana2416923141.860.7%
BarnstableMassachusetts5837295155.566.6%
BerkshireMassachusetts323122273264.2113.2%
BristolMassachusetts870364637238.6102.2%
DukesMassachusetts215669370.4158.7%
EssexMassachusetts1081496313217.893.3%
FranklinMassachusetts14449453291.2124.7%
HampdenMassachusetts819332107246.6105.6%
HampshireMassachusetts20072461276.0118.2%
MiddlesexMassachusetts2246971390231.299.0%
NantucketMassachusetts83401235.2100.8%
NorfolkMassachusetts688325180211.690.6%
PlymouthMassachusetts356168824210.990.3%
SuffolkMassachusetts1856863248215.092.1%
WorcesterMassachusetts1282504470254.1108.9%
AlleganyMaryland28286973324.2138.9%
Anne ArundelMaryland14668375213.591.5%
BaltimoreMaryland367155825235.5100.9%
Baltimore (city)Maryland2031859100236.4101.3%
CalvertMaryland2010484190.881.7%
CarolineMaryland2917549165.370.8%
CarrollMaryland8839054225.396.5%
CecilMaryland6326407238.6102.2%
CharlesMaryland3817612215.892.4%
DorchesterMaryland6128006217.893.3%
FrederickMaryland14157312246.0105.4%
GarrettMaryland5221981236.6101.3%
HarfordMaryland10935060310.9133.2%
HowardMaryland4317175250.4107.2%
KentMaryland2913465215.492.3%
MontgomeryMaryland18983912225.296.5%
Prince GeorgesMaryland21289490236.9101.5%
Queen AnnesMaryland2714476186.579.9%
SomersetMaryland5120965243.3104.2%
St MarysMaryland3314626225.696.6%
TalbotMaryland2918784154.466.1%
WashingtonMaryland17468838252.8108.3%
WicomicoMaryland6934530199.885.6%
WorcesterMaryland4021245188.380.6%
AndroscogginMaine20376679264.7113.4%
AroostookMaine22394436236.1101.1%
CumberlandMaine389146000266.4114.1%
FranklinMaine5619896281.5120.6%
HancockMaine6732422206.688.5%
KennebecMaine20977231270.6115.9%
KnoxMaine6327191231.799.2%
LincolnMaine3416294208.789.4%
OxfordMaine12742662297.7127.5%
PenobscotMaine23897104245.1105.0%
PiscataquisMaine5718467308.7132.2%
SagadahocMaine3819123198.785.1%
SomersetMaine9338245243.2104.2%
WaldoMaine5321159250.5107.3%
WashingtonMaine7637767201.286.2%
YorkMaine20682550249.5106.9%
AlconaMichigan165463292.9125.5%
AlgerMichigan2910167285.2122.2%
AlleganMichigan8741839207.989.1%
AlpenaMichigan4620766221.594.9%
AntrimMichigan3310964301.0128.9%
ArenacMichigan249233259.9111.3%
BaragaMichigan249356256.5109.9%
BarryMichigan4622613203.487.1%
BayMichigan18274981242.7104.0%
BenzieMichigan167800205.187.9%
BerrienMichigan23789117265.9113.9%
BranchMichigan5125845197.384.5%
CalhounMichigan20794206219.794.1%
CassMichigan3621910164.370.4%
CharlevoixMichigan3313031253.2108.5%
CheboyganMichigan4313644315.2135.0%
ChippewaMichigan7227807258.9110.9%
ClareMichigan269163283.7121.5%
ClintonMichigan4626671172.573.9%
CrawfordMichigan113765292.2125.1%
DeltaMichigan10634037311.4133.4%
DickinsonMichigan8828731306.3131.2%
EatonMichigan6434124187.680.3%
EmmetMichigan3315791209.089.5%
GeneseeMichigan498227944218.593.6%
GladwinMichigan279385287.7123.2%
GogebicMichigan12731797399.4171.1%
Grand TraverseMichigan4623390196.784.2%
GratiotMichigan5132205158.467.8%
HillsdaleMichigan5529092189.181.0%
HoughtonMichigan13047631272.9116.9%
HuronMichigan7732584236.3101.2%
InghamMichigan322130616246.5105.6%
IoniaMichigan9135710254.8109.2%
IoscoMichigan168560186.980.1%
IronMichigan8220243405.1173.5%
IsabellaMichigan5225982200.185.7%
JacksonMichigan18693108199.885.6%
KalamazooMichigan246100085245.8105.3%
KalkaskaMichigan155159290.8124.5%
KentMichigan583246338236.7101.4%
KeweenawMichigan114004274.7117.7%
LakeMichigan94798187.680.3%
LapeerMichigan6532116202.486.7%
LeelanauMichigan118436130.455.9%
LenaweeMichigan13353110250.4107.3%
LivingstonMichigan4620863220.594.4%
LuceMichigan117423148.263.5%
MackinacMichigan209438211.990.8%
MacombMichigan252107638234.1100.3%
ManisteeMichigan4818450260.2111.4%
MarquetteMichigan10747144227.097.2%
MasonMichigan5619378289.0123.8%
MecostaMichigan4416902260.3111.5%
MenomineeMichigan6124883245.1105.0%
MidlandMichigan6427094236.2101.2%
MissaukeeMichigan198034236.5101.3%
MonroeMichigan13158620223.595.7%
MontcalmMichigan5628581195.983.9%
MontmorencyMichigan103840260.4111.5%
MuskegonMichigan27494501289.9124.2%
NewaygoMichigan4419286228.197.7%
OaklandMichigan600254068236.2101.2%
OceanaMichigan3714812249.8107.0%
OgemawMichigan158720172.073.7%
OntonagonMichigan3911359343.3147.1%
OsceolaMichigan3213309240.4103.0%
OscodaMichigan62543235.9101.1%
OtsegoMichigan115827188.880.9%
OttawaMichigan16659660278.2119.2%
Presque IsleMichigan3212250261.2111.9%
RoscommonMichigan133668354.4151.8%
SaginawMichigan317130468243.0104.1%
SanilacMichigan3930114129.555.5%
SchoolcraftMichigan349524357.0152.9%
ShiawasseeMichigan8141207196.684.2%
St ClairMichigan19576222255.8109.6%
St JosephMichigan6031749189.081.0%
TuscolaMichigan6235694173.774.4%
Van BurenMichigan8535111242.1103.7%
WashtenawMichigan20180810248.7106.5%
WayneMichigan51042015623253.2108.5%
WexfordMichigan4817976267.0114.4%
AitkinMinnesota5017865279.9119.9%
AnokaMinnesota3222443142.661.1%
BeckerMinnesota6126562229.798.4%
BeltramiMinnesota8126107310.3132.9%
BentonMinnesota4716106291.8125.0%
Big St.oneMinnesota3810447363.7155.8%
Blue EarthMinnesota7336203201.686.4%
BrownMinnesota4225544164.470.4%
CarltonMinnesota6624212272.6116.8%
CarverMinnesota2317606130.656.0%
CassMinnesota4320646208.389.2%
ChippewaMinnesota4616927271.8116.4%
ChisagoMinnesota2513124190.581.6%
ClayMinnesota5925337232.999.7%
ClearwaterMinnesota4011153358.6153.6%
CookMinnesota83030264.0113.1%
CottonwoodMinnesota3116143192.082.3%
Crow WingMinnesota8430226277.9119.0%
DakotaMinnesota8639660216.892.9%
DodgeMinnesota1912931146.962.9%
DouglasMinnesota2920369142.461.0%
FaribaultMinnesota5423941225.696.6%
FillmoreMinnesota5425830209.189.6%
FreebornMinnesota8431780264.3113.2%
GoodhueMinnesota7231564228.197.7%
GrantMinnesota189828183.278.5%
HennepinMinnesota1340568899235.5100.9%
HoustonMinnesota2714735183.278.5%
HubbardMinnesota2611085234.6100.5%
IsantiMinnesota2012950154.466.2%
ItascaMinnesota9032996272.8116.8%
JacksonMinnesota3816805226.196.9%
KanabecMinnesota179651176.175.5%
KandiyohiMinnesota5426524203.687.2%
KittsonMinnesota2610717242.6103.9%
KoochichingMinnesota5816930342.6146.7%
Lac Qui ParleMinnesota4515509290.2124.3%
LakeMinnesota186956258.8110.8%
Lake Of The WoodsMinnesota165975267.8114.7%
Le SueurMinnesota2719227140.460.2%
LincolnMinnesota2810797259.3111.1%
LyonMinnesota6221569287.4123.1%
MahnomenMinnesota248054298.0127.6%
MarshallMinnesota3118364168.872.3%
MartinMinnesota5124656206.888.6%
McleodMinnesota4521380210.590.2%
MeekerMinnesota4019277207.588.9%
Mille LacsMinnesota3815558244.2104.6%
MorrisonMinnesota6827473247.5106.0%
MowerMinnesota8836113243.7104.4%
MurrayMinnesota2715060179.376.8%
NicolletMinnesota2918282158.667.9%
NoblesMinnesota4021215188.580.8%
NormanMinnesota3814746257.7110.4%
OlmstedMinnesota8142658189.981.3%
Otter TailMinnesota8753192163.670.1%
PenningtonMinnesota3512913271.0116.1%
PineMinnesota4821478223.595.7%
PipestoneMinnesota3813794275.5118.0%
PolkMinnesota8337734220.094.2%
PopeMinnesota3913544288.0123.3%
RamseyMinnesota746309935240.7103.1%
Red LakeMinnesota177413229.398.2%
RedwoodMinnesota5922290264.7113.4%
RenvilleMinnesota5824625235.5100.9%
RiceMinnesota6032160186.679.9%
RockMinnesota1710933155.566.6%
RoseauMinnesota2715103178.876.6%
ScottMinnesota2115585134.757.7%
SherburneMinnesota3010456286.9122.9%
SibleyMinnesota3016625180.577.3%
St.earnsMinnesota12067200178.676.5%
St.eeleMinnesota4319749217.793.3%
St.evensMinnesota2211039199.385.4%
St LouisMinnesota573206917276.9118.6%
SwiftMinnesota4815469310.3132.9%
ToddMinnesota5427438196.884.3%
TraverseMinnesota198283229.498.3%
WabashaMinnesota4217653237.9101.9%
WadenaMinnesota4112772321.0137.5%
WasecaMinnesota3115186204.187.4%
WashingtonMinnesota5826430219.494.0%
WatonwanMinnesota3413902244.6104.8%
WilkinMinnesota2010475190.981.8%
WinonaMinnesota6437795169.372.5%
WrightMinnesota4227550152.565.3%
Yellow MedicineMinnesota3416917201.086.1%
AdairMissouri4420246217.393.1%
AndrewMissouri2913015222.895.4%
AtchisonMissouri4112897317.9136.2%
AudrainMissouri5722673251.4107.7%
BarryMissouri4523546191.181.9%
BartonMissouri3614148254.5109.0%
BatesMissouri3819531194.683.3%
BentonMissouri2511142224.496.1%
BollingerMissouri1712898131.856.5%
BooneMissouri8434991240.1102.8%
BuchananMissouri21694067229.698.4%
ButlerMissouri6134276178.076.2%
CaldwellMissouri3811629326.8140.0%
CallawayMissouri4323094186.279.8%
CamdenMissouri248971267.5114.6%
Cape GirardeauMissouri8037775211.890.7%
CarrollMissouri3117814174.074.5%
CarterMissouri116226176.775.7%
CassMissouri4419534225.296.5%
CedarMissouri3311697282.1120.8%
CharitonMissouri4018084221.294.7%
ChristianMissouri2313538169.972.8%
ClarkMissouri1210166118.050.6%
ClayMissouri6130417200.585.9%
ClintonMissouri3713261279.0119.5%
ColeMissouri8334912237.7101.8%
CooperMissouri4718075260.0111.4%
CrawfordMissouri4112693323.0138.4%
DadeMissouri2611248231.299.0%
DallasMissouri2111523182.278.1%
DaviessMissouri3513398261.2111.9%
De KalbMissouri199751194.983.5%
DentMissouri3511763297.5127.5%
DouglasMissouri2915600185.979.6%
DunklinMissouri9544957211.390.5%
FranklinMissouri6733868197.884.7%
GasconadeMissouri2412414193.382.8%
GentryMissouri3513359262.0112.2%
GreeneMissouri18690541205.488.0%
GrundyMissouri3415716216.392.7%
HarrisonMissouri3016525181.577.8%
HenryMissouri5322313237.5101.7%
HickoryMissouri86506123.052.7%
HoltMissouri3012476240.5103.0%
HowardMissouri2713026207.388.8%
HowellMissouri7322270327.8140.4%
IronMissouri2510440239.5102.6%
JacksonMissouri1045477828218.793.7%
JasperMissouri19478705246.5105.6%
JeffersonMissouri7432023231.199.0%
JohnsonMissouri4621617212.891.2%
KnoxMissouri168878180.277.2%
LacledeMissouri4318718229.798.4%
LafayetteMissouri8227856294.4126.1%
LawrenceMissouri3824637154.266.1%
LewisMissouri2511490217.693.2%
LincolnMissouri3514395243.1104.1%
LinnMissouri4721416219.594.0%
LivingstonMissouri2918000161.169.0%
MaconMissouri4221396196.384.1%
MadisonMissouri249656248.6106.5%
MariesMissouri158638173.774.4%
MarionMissouri7231576228.097.7%
McdonaldMissouri4015749254.0108.8%
MercerMissouri248766273.8117.3%
MillerMissouri2314798155.466.6%
MississippiMissouri4323149185.879.6%
MoniteauMissouri2711775229.398.2%
MonroeMissouri1913195144.061.7%
MontgomeryMissouri2712442217.093.0%
MorganMissouri3011140269.3115.4%
New MadridMissouri8139787203.687.2%
NewtonMissouri5829039199.785.6%
NodawayMissouri6225556242.6103.9%
OregonMissouri2813390209.189.6%
OsageMissouri2812375226.396.9%
OzarkMissouri2510766232.299.5%
PemiscotMissouri8746857185.779.5%
PerryMissouri2615358169.372.5%
PettisMissouri6133336183.078.4%
PhelpsMissouri4417437252.3108.1%
PikeMissouri3118327169.172.5%
PlatteMissouri3413862245.3105.1%
PolkMissouri4217400241.4103.4%
PulaskiMissouri2210775204.287.5%
PutnamMissouri1711327150.164.3%
RallsMissouri1510040149.464.0%
RandolphMissouri4824458196.384.1%
RayMissouri5118584274.4117.6%
ReynoldsMissouri219370224.196.0%
RipleyMissouri2612606206.388.3%
SalineMissouri7429416251.6107.8%
SchuylerMissouri206627301.8129.3%
ScotlandMissouri198557222.095.1%
ScottMissouri7430377243.6104.3%
ShannonMissouri2011831169.072.4%
ShelbyMissouri1411224124.753.4%
St CharlesMissouri4325562168.272.1%
St ClairMissouri2513146190.281.5%
St.e. GenevieveMissouri2710905247.6106.1%
St FrancoisMissouri7135950197.584.6%
St LouisMissouri453274230165.270.8%
St Louis (city)Missouri1636816048200.585.9%
St.oddardMissouri5333009160.668.8%
St.oneMissouri2611298230.198.6%
SullivanMissouri3413701248.2106.3%
TaneyMissouri2010323193.783.0%
TexasMissouri4819813242.3103.8%
VernonMissouri6625586258.0110.5%
WarrenMissouri167734206.988.6%
WashingtonMissouri3917492223.095.5%
WayneMissouri2812794218.993.7%
WebsterMissouri3117226180.077.1%
WorthMissouri156345236.4101.3%
WrightMissouri3917967217.193.0%
AdamsMississippi3627238132.256.6%
AlcornMississippi5926969218.893.7%
AmiteMississippi3121892141.660.7%
AttalaMississippi5130227168.772.3%
BentonMississippi2410429230.198.6%
BolivarMississippi676757499.242.5%
CalhounMississippi5220893248.9106.6%
CarrollMississippi2920651140.460.2%
ChickasawMississippi3721427172.774.0%
ChoctawMississippi3113548228.898.0%
ClaiborneMississippi1812810140.560.2%
ClarkeMississippi3220596155.466.6%
ClayMississippi3019030157.667.5%
CoahomaMississippi5048333103.444.3%
CopiahMississippi5833974170.773.1%
CovingtonMississippi3217030187.980.5%
De SotoMississippi262666397.541.8%
ForrestMississippi8834901252.1108.0%
FranklinMississippi3012504239.9102.8%
GeorgeMississippi228704252.8108.3%
GreeneMississippi239512241.8103.6%
GrenadaMississippi4219052220.494.4%
HancockMississippi2311328203.087.0%
HarrisonMississippi11950799234.3100.3%
HindsMississippi222107273206.988.6%
HolmesMississippi4439710110.847.5%
HumphreysMississippi4226257160.068.5%
IssaquenaMississippi76433108.846.6%
ItawambaMississippi4519922225.996.8%
JacksonMississippi6120601296.1126.8%
JasperMississippi3519484179.676.9%
JeffersonMississippi1613969114.549.1%
Jefferson DavisMississippi91586956.724.3%
JonesMississippi8449227170.673.1%
KemperMississippi3321867150.964.6%
LafayetteMississippi4621257216.492.7%
LamarMississippi4012096330.7141.6%
LauderdaleMississippi11158247190.681.6%
LawrenceMississippi2613983185.979.6%
LeakeMississippi4224570170.973.2%
LeeMississippi10138838260.1111.4%
LefloreMississippi5953406110.547.3%
LincolnMississippi4327506156.367.0%
LowndesMississippi5535245156.166.8%
MadisonMississippi373750498.742.3%
MarionMississippi4424085182.778.3%
MarshallMississippi182552270.530.2%
MonroeMississippi6237648164.770.5%
MontgomeryMississippi3715703235.6100.9%
NeshobaMississippi3327882118.450.7%
NewtonMississippi4524249185.679.5%
NoxubeeMississippi252566997.441.7%
OktibbehaMississippi3822151171.573.5%
PanolaMississippi3734421107.546.0%
Pearl RiverMississippi4819125251.0107.5%
PerryMississippi9929296.941.5%
PikeMississippi7035002200.085.7%
PontotocMississippi4322904187.780.4%
PrentissMississippi3820921181.677.8%
QuitmanMississippi3527191128.755.1%
RankinMississippi212793475.232.2%
ScottMississippi3723144159.968.5%
SharkeyMississippi101543364.827.8%
SimpsonMississippi4322024195.283.6%
SmithMississippi4019403206.288.3%
St.oneMississippi146155227.597.4%
SunflowerMississippi576100793.440.0%
TallahatchieMississippi303416687.837.6%
TateMississippi191930998.442.1%
TippahMississippi5219680264.2113.2%
TishomingoMississippi4316974253.3108.5%
TunicaMississippi152261066.328.4%
UnionMississippi5321867242.4103.8%
WalthallMississippi2217534125.553.7%
WarrenMississippi5239595131.356.3%
WashingtonMississippi7167576105.145.0%
WayneMississippi3016928177.275.9%
WebsterMississippi2614160183.678.7%
WilkinsonMississippi2315955144.261.7%
WinstonMississippi4022751175.875.3%
YalobushaMississippi3718387201.286.2%
YazooMississippi4640091114.749.1%
BeaverheadMontana186943259.3111.1%
Big HornMontana2210419211.290.4%
BlaineMontana319566324.1138.8%
BroadwaterMontana173451492.6211.0%
CarbonMontana4411865370.8158.8%
CarterMontana213280640.2274.2%
CascadeMontana11441999271.4116.3%
ChouteauMontana257316341.7146.4%
CusterMontana3010422287.9123.3%
DanielsMontana104563219.293.9%
DawsonMontana368618417.7178.9%
Deer LodgeMontana4113627300.9128.9%
FallonMontana143719376.4161.2%
FergusMontana4214040299.1128.1%
FlatheadMontana8124271333.7143.0%
GallatinMontana5818269317.5136.0%
GarfieldMontana132641492.2210.8%
GlacierMontana279034298.9128.0%
Golden ValleyMontana81607497.8213.2%
GraniteMontana113401323.4138.5%
HillMontana4113304308.2132.0%
JeffersonMontana104664214.491.8%
Judith BasinMontana73655191.582.0%
LakeMontana3513490259.5111.1%
Lewis And ClarkMontana5622131253.0108.4%
LibertyMontana32209135.858.2%
LincolnMontana167882203.087.0%
MadisonMontana117294150.864.6%
McconeMontana103798263.3112.8%
MeagherMontana52237223.595.7%
MineralMontana62135281.0120.4%
MissoulaMontana7729038265.2113.6%
MusselshellMontana155717262.4112.4%
ParkMontana3311566285.3122.2%
PetroleumMontana31083277.0118.7%
PhillipsMontana307892380.1162.8%
PonderaMontana176716253.1108.4%
Powder RiverMontana43159126.654.2%
PowellMontana136152211.390.5%
PrairieMontana102410414.9177.7%
RavalliMontana3712978285.1122.1%
RichlandMontana2510209244.9104.9%
RooseveltMontana379806377.3161.6%
RosebudMontana166477247.0105.8%
SandersMontana136926187.780.4%
SheridanMontana177814217.693.2%
Silver BowMontana12053207225.596.6%
St.illwaterMontana105694175.675.2%
Sweet GrassMontana83719215.192.1%
TetonMontana186922260.0111.4%
TooleMontana196769280.7120.2%
TreasureMontana41499266.8114.3%
ValleyMontana3015181197.684.6%
WheatlandMontana153286456.5195.5%
WibauxMontana82161370.2158.6%
YellowstoneMontana9941182240.4103.0%
Yellowstone Np (pt)Montana1432325.6996.2%
AlamanceNorth Carolina15357427266.4114.1%
AlexanderNorth Carolina4813454356.8152.8%
AlleghanyNorth Carolina218341251.8107.8%
AnsonNorth Carolina3928443137.158.7%
AsheNorth Carolina5322664233.9100.2%
AveryNorth Carolina4213561309.7132.7%
BeaufortNorth Carolina5636431153.765.8%
BertieNorth Carolina3426201129.855.6%
BladenNorth Carolina3927156143.661.5%
BrunswickNorth Carolina2517125146.062.5%
BuncombeNorth Carolina255108755234.5100.4%
BurkeNorth Carolina10938615282.3120.9%
CabarrusNorth Carolina17159393287.9123.3%
CaldwellNorth Carolina8735795243.1104.1%
CamdenNorth Carolina5544091.939.4%
CarteretNorth Carolina2618284142.260.9%
CaswellNorth Carolina2320032114.849.2%
CatawbaNorth Carolina11451653220.794.5%
ChathamNorth Carolina3624726145.662.4%
CherokeeNorth Carolina4718813249.8107.0%
ChowanNorth Carolina1611572138.359.2%
ClayNorth Carolina126405187.480.3%
ClevelandNorth Carolina12258055210.190.0%
ColumbusNorth Carolina8845663192.782.5%
CravenNorth Carolina3431298108.646.5%
CumberlandNorth Carolina12859320215.892.4%
CurrituckNorth Carolina76709104.344.7%
DareNorth Carolina5604182.835.5%
DavidsonNorth Carolina12153377226.797.1%
DavieNorth Carolina3714909248.2106.3%
DuplinNorth Carolina6639739166.171.1%
DurhamNorth Carolina15780244195.783.8%
EdgecombeNorth Carolina5149162103.744.4%
ForsythNorth Carolina265126475209.589.8%
FranklinNorth Carolina263038285.636.7%
GastonNorth Carolina25487531290.2124.3%
GatesNorth Carolina1210060119.351.1%
GrahamNorth Carolina176418264.9113.5%
GranvilleNorth Carolina3429344115.949.6%
GreeneNorth Carolina2018548107.846.2%
GuilfordNorth Carolina355153916230.698.8%
HalifaxNorth Carolina7956512139.859.9%
HarnettNorth Carolina6544239146.962.9%
HaywoodNorth Carolina10034804287.3123.1%
HendersonNorth Carolina6026049230.398.7%
HertfordNorth Carolina2619352134.457.5%
HokeNorth Carolina141493793.740.1%
HydeNorth Carolina147860178.176.3%
IredellNorth Carolina9750424192.482.4%
JacksonNorth Carolina5519366284.0121.7%
JohnstonNorth Carolina9863798153.665.8%
JonesNorth Carolina91092682.435.3%
LeeNorth Carolina5318743282.8121.1%
LenoirNorth Carolina6841211165.070.7%
LincolnNorth Carolina7124187293.5125.7%
MaconNorth Carolina4415880277.1118.7%
MadisonNorth Carolina4322522190.981.8%
MartinNorth Carolina3126111118.750.9%
McdowellNorth Carolina6222996269.6115.5%
MecklenburgNorth Carolina363151826239.1102.4%
MitchellNorth Carolina3515980219.093.8%
MontgomeryNorth Carolina4016280245.7105.2%
MooreNorth Carolina7130969229.398.2%
NashNorth Carolina9255608165.470.9%
New HanoverNorth Carolina9447935196.184.0%
NorthamptonNorth Carolina222829977.733.3%
OnslowNorth Carolina4117939228.697.9%
OrangeNorth Carolina4223072182.078.0%
PamlicoNorth Carolina129706123.653.0%
PasquotankNorth Carolina2620568126.454.1%
PenderNorth Carolina2217710124.253.2%
PerquimansNorth Carolina139773133.057.0%
PersonNorth Carolina5325029211.890.7%
PittNorth Carolina8061244130.656.0%
PolkNorth Carolina3411874286.3122.7%
RandolphNorth Carolina8644554193.082.7%
RichmondNorth Carolina6336810171.173.3%
RobesonNorth Carolina14176860183.578.6%
RockinghamNorth Carolina13157898226.396.9%
RowanNorth Carolina14669206211.090.4%
RutherfordNorth Carolina8845577193.182.7%
SampsonNorth Carolina5647440118.050.6%
ScotlandNorth Carolina3823232163.670.1%
St.anlyNorth Carolina7632834231.599.1%
St.okesNorth Carolina3922656172.173.7%
SurryNorth Carolina11341783270.4115.8%
SwainNorth Carolina4312177353.1151.3%
TransylvaniaNorth Carolina3512241285.9122.5%
TyrrellNorth Carolina85556144.061.7%
UnionNorth Carolina8939097227.697.5%
VanceNorth Carolina6729961223.695.8%
WakeNorth Carolina198109544180.777.4%
WarrenNorth Carolina3523145151.264.8%
WashingtonNorth Carolina2012323162.369.5%
WataugaNorth Carolina3518114193.282.8%
WayneNorth Carolina8258328140.660.2%
WilkesNorth Carolina9743003225.696.6%
WilsonNorth Carolina8750219173.274.2%
YadkinNorth Carolina3520657169.472.6%
YanceyNorth Carolina2917202168.672.2%
AdamsNorth Dakota84664171.573.5%
BarnesNorth Dakota4117814230.298.6%
BensonNorth Dakota3412629269.2115.3%
BillingsNorth Dakota92531355.6152.3%
BottineauNorth Dakota3213253241.5103.4%
BowmanNorth Dakota133860336.8144.3%
BurkeNorth Dakota217653274.4117.5%
BurleighNorth Dakota4722736206.788.5%
CassNorth Dakota14752849278.2119.1%
CavalierNorth Dakota3313923237.0101.5%
DickeyNorth Dakota259696257.8110.4%
DivideNorth Dakota157086211.790.7%
DunnNorth Dakota248376286.5122.7%
EddyNorth Dakota155741261.3111.9%
EmmonsNorth Dakota2411699205.187.9%
FosterNorth Dakota155824257.6110.3%
Golden ValleyNorth Dakota113498314.5134.7%
Grand ForksNorth Dakota9534518275.2117.9%
GrantNorth Dakota138264157.367.4%
GriggsNorth Dakota165818275.0117.8%
HettingerNorth Dakota217457281.6120.6%
KidderNorth Dakota166692239.1102.4%
La MoureNorth Dakota2510298242.8104.0%
LoganNorth Dakota167561211.690.6%
MchenryNorth Dakota3114034220.994.6%
McintoshNorth Dakota208984222.695.4%
MckenzieNorth Dakota228426261.1111.8%
McleanNorth Dakota4516082279.8119.9%
MercerNorth Dakota9961193.640.1%
MortonNorth Dakota4320184213.091.3%
MountrailNorth Dakota2510482238.5102.2%
NelsonNorth Dakota249129262.9112.6%
OliverNorth Dakota3385977.733.3%
PembinaNorth Dakota3815671242.5103.9%
PierceNorth Dakota199208206.388.4%
RamseyNorth Dakota3615626230.498.7%
RansomNorth Dakota2810061278.3119.2%
RenvilleNorth Dakota155533271.1116.1%
RichlandNorth Dakota4120519199.885.6%
RoletteNorth Dakota3212583254.3108.9%
SargentNorth Dakota228693253.1108.4%
SheridanNorth Dakota136616196.584.2%
SiouxNorth Dakota114419248.9106.6%
SlopeNorth Dakota72932238.7102.3%
St.arkNorth Dakota3915414253.0108.4%
St.eeleNorth Dakota206193322.9138.3%
St.utsmanNorth Dakota5723495242.6103.9%
TownerNorth Dakota177200236.1101.1%
TraillNorth Dakota3712300300.8128.9%
WalshNorth Dakota6620747318.1136.3%
WardNorth Dakota8231981256.4109.8%
WellsNorth Dakota3311198294.7126.2%
WilliamsNorth Dakota5816315355.5152.3%
AdamsNebraska6424576260.4111.5%
AntelopeNebraska3013289225.896.7%
ArthurNebraska1104595.741.0%
BannerNebraska014030.00.0%
BlaineNebraska41538260.1111.4%
BooneNebraska2212127181.477.7%
Box ButteNebraska101073693.139.9%
BoydNebraska76060115.549.5%
BrownNebraska125962201.386.2%
BuffaloNebraska4823655202.986.9%
BurtNebraska3312546263.0112.7%
ButlerNebraska2713106206.088.2%
CassNebraska3716992217.793.3%
CedarNebraska3415126224.896.3%
ChaseNebraska155310282.5121.0%
CherryNebraska329637332.1142.2%
CheyenneNebraska179505178.976.6%
ClayNebraska1910445181.977.9%
ColfaxNebraska3110627291.7125.0%
CumingNebraska1913562140.160.0%
CusterNebraska4722591208.089.1%
DakotaNebraska249836244.0104.5%
DawesNebraska2610128256.7110.0%
DawsonNebraska5417890301.8129.3%
DeuelNebraska123580335.2143.6%
DixonNebraska1810413172.974.0%
DodgeNebraska5223799218.593.6%
DouglasNebraska595247562240.3103.0%
DundyNebraska105122195.283.6%
FillmoreNebraska2411417210.290.0%
FranklinNebraska197740245.5105.2%
FrontierNebraska116417171.473.4%
FurnasNebraska2410098237.7101.8%
GageNebraska7529588253.5108.6%
GardenNebraska124680256.4109.8%
GarfieldNebraska153444435.5186.6%
GosperNebraska103687271.2116.2%
GrantNebraska91327678.2290.5%
GreeleyNebraska166845233.7100.1%
HallNebraska7827523283.4121.4%
HamiltonNebraska169982160.368.7%
HarlanNebraska87130112.248.1%
HayesNebraska62958202.886.9%
HitchcockNebraska166404249.8107.0%
HoltNebraska4816552290.0124.2%
HookerNebraska51253399.0170.9%
HowardNebraska158422178.176.3%
JeffersonNebraska3815532244.7104.8%
JohnsonNebraska198662219.394.0%
KearneyNebraska116854160.568.7%
KeithNebraska198333228.097.7%
Keya PahaNebraska53235154.666.2%
KimballNebraska93913230.098.5%
KnoxNebraska3216478194.283.2%
LancasterNebraska233100585231.699.2%
LincolnNebraska7125425279.3119.6%
LoganNebraska151742861.1368.8%
LoupNebraska31777168.872.3%
MadisonNebraska5224269214.391.8%
McphersonNebraska1117585.136.5%
MerrickNebraska249354256.6109.9%
MorrillNebraska219436222.695.3%
NanceNebraska117653143.761.6%
NemahaNebraska4512781352.1150.8%
NuckollsNebraska2110446201.086.1%
OtoeNebraska3918994205.388.0%
PawneeNebraska168514187.980.5%
PerkinsNebraska5519796.241.2%
PhelpsNebraska118452130.155.7%
PierceNebraska2110211205.788.1%
PlatteNebraska4020191198.184.9%
PolkNebraska128748137.258.8%
Red WillowNebraska2011951167.471.7%
RichardsonNebraska4419178229.498.3%
RockNebraska93977226.396.9%
SalineNebraska3315010219.994.2%
SarpyNebraska1610835147.763.3%
SaundersNebraska3717892206.888.6%
Scotts BluffNebraska5933917174.074.5%
SewardNebraska2914167204.787.7%
SheridanNebraska229869222.995.5%
ShermanNebraska147764180.377.2%
SiouxNebraska3400175.032.1%
St.antonNebraska126887174.274.6%
ThayerNebraska3212262261.0111.8%
ThomasNebraska51553322.0137.9%
ThurstonNebraska2210243214.892.0%
ValleyNebraska158163183.878.7%
WashingtonNebraska2511578215.992.5%
WayneNebraska189880182.278.0%
WebsterNebraska148071173.574.3%
WheelerNebraska2217092.239.5%
YorkNebraska2314874154.666.2%
BelknapNew Hampshire5024328205.588.0%
CarrollNew Hampshire3415589218.193.4%
CheshireNew Hampshire9234953263.2112.7%
CoosNew Hampshire9939274252.1108.0%
GraftonNew Hampshire12444645277.7119.0%
HillsboroughNew Hampshire360144888248.5106.4%
MerrimackNew Hampshire11360710186.179.7%
RockinghamNew Hampshire13458142230.598.7%
St.raffordNew Hampshire10843553248.0106.2%
SullivanNew Hampshire8025442314.4134.7%
AtlanticNew Jersey236124066190.281.5%
BergenNew Jersey1054409646257.3110.2%
BurlingtonNew Jersey24397013250.5107.3%
CamdenNew Jersey608255727237.8101.8%
Cape MayNew Jersey7628919262.8112.6%
CumberlandNew Jersey15273184207.789.0%
EssexNew Jersey2000837340238.9102.3%
GloucesterNew Jersey18372219253.4108.5%
HudsonNew Jersey1602652040245.7105.2%
HunterdonNew Jersey7736766209.489.7%
MercerNew Jersey517197318262.0112.2%
MiddlesexNew Jersey673217077310.0132.8%
MonmouthNew Jersey355161238220.294.3%
MorrisNew Jersey302125732240.2102.9%
OceanNew Jersey8537706225.496.6%
PassaicNew Jersey759309353245.4105.1%
SalemNew Jersey9142274215.392.2%
SomersetNew Jersey18274390244.7104.8%
SussexNew Jersey8729632293.6125.8%
UnionNew Jersey851328344259.2111.0%
WarrenNew Jersey12050181239.1102.4%
BernalilloNew Mexico35469391510.2218.5%
CatronNew Mexico144881286.8122.9%
ChavesNew Mexico9323980387.8166.1%
ColfaxNew Mexico6118718325.9139.6%
CurryNew Mexico8418159462.6198.1%
De BacaNew Mexico183725483.2207.0%
Dona AnaNew Mexico9830411322.3138.0%
EddyNew Mexico11624311477.2204.4%
GrantNew Mexico10820050538.7230.7%
GuadalupeNew Mexico298646335.4143.7%
HardingNew Mexico134374297.2127.3%
HidalgoNew Mexico144821290.4124.4%
LeaNew Mexico6521154307.3131.6%
LincolnNew Mexico348557397.3170.2%
LunaNew Mexico586457898.2384.8%
MckinleyNew Mexico10323641435.7186.6%
MoraNew Mexico4110981373.4159.9%
OteroNew Mexico3710522351.6150.6%
QuayNew Mexico2412111198.284.9%
Rio ArribaNew Mexico6025352236.7101.4%
RooseveltNew Mexico4514549309.3132.5%
SandovalNew Mexico4113898295.0126.4%
San JuanNew Mexico4517115262.9112.6%
San MiguelNew Mexico7127910254.4109.0%
Santa FeNew Mexico11730826379.5162.6%
SierraNew Mexico256962359.1153.8%
SocorroNew Mexico3611422315.2135.0%
TaosNew Mexico6918528372.4159.5%
TorranceNew Mexico3311026299.3128.2%
UnionNew Mexico319095340.8146.0%
ValenciaNew Mexico8220245405.0173.5%
ChurchillNevada205317376.2161.1%
ClarkNevada6916414420.4180.1%
DouglasNevada72056340.5145.8%
ElkoNevada3210912293.3125.6%
EsmeraldaNevada015540.00.0%
EurekaNevada41361293.9125.9%
HumboldtNevada124743253.0108.4%
LanderNevada61745343.8147.3%
LincolnNevada124130290.6124.5%
LyonNevada114076269.9115.6%
MineralNevada162342683.2292.6%
NyeNevada113606305.0130.7%
PershingNevada82713294.9126.3%
St.oreyNevada31216246.7105.7%
WashoeNevada8832476271.0116.1%
White PineNevada2512377202.086.5%
AlbanyNew York556221315251.2107.6%
AlleganyNew York12539681315.0134.9%
BronxNew York20141394711144.461.9%
BroomeNew York438165749264.3113.2%
CattaraugusNew York19172652262.9112.6%
CayugaNew York17265508262.6112.5%
ChautauquaNew York345123580279.2119.6%
ChemungNew York19473718263.2112.7%
ChenangoNew York10336454282.5121.0%
ClintonNew York11854006218.593.6%
ColumbiaNew York9641464231.599.2%
CortlandNew York7333668216.892.9%
DelawareNew York11040989268.4115.0%
DutchessNew York314120542260.5111.6%
ErieNew York2077798377260.2111.4%
EssexNew York11434178333.5142.9%
FranklinNew York10444286234.8100.6%
FultonNew York10848597222.295.2%
GeneseeNew York11344481254.0108.8%
GreeneNew York7727926275.7118.1%
HamiltonNew York224188525.3225.0%
HerkimerNew York16559527277.2118.7%
JeffersonNew York22084003261.9112.2%
KingsNew York58402698285216.492.7%
LewisNew York6122815267.4114.5%
LivingstonNew York7138510184.479.0%
MadisonNew York10339598260.1111.4%
MonroeNew York1051438230239.8102.7%
MontgomeryNew York17559142295.9126.7%
NassauNew York855406748210.290.0%
New YorkNew York49101889924259.8111.3%
NiagaraNew York515160110321.7137.8%
OneidaNew York534203636262.2112.3%
OnondagaNew York787295108266.7114.2%
OntarioNew York12955307233.299.9%
OrangeNew York305140113217.793.2%
OrleansNew York10027760360.2154.3%
OswegoNew York19271275269.4115.4%
OtsegoNew York11046082238.7102.2%
PutnamNew York4416555265.8113.8%
QueensNew York29971297634231.098.9%
RensselaerNew York282121834231.599.1%
RichmondNew York346174441198.385.0%
RocklandNew York15874261212.891.1%
SaratogaNew York17865606271.3116.2%
SchenectadyNew York278122494226.997.2%
SchoharieNew York3520812168.272.0%
SchuylerNew York3712979285.1122.1%
SenecaNew York5025732194.383.2%
St.eubenNew York23284927273.2117.0%
St LawrenceNew York24691098270.0115.7%
SuffolkNew York325197355164.770.5%
SullivanNew York9137901240.1102.8%
TiogaNew York6327072232.799.7%
TompkinsNew York9742340229.198.1%
UlsterNew York19787017226.497.0%
WarrenNew York9636035266.4114.1%
WashingtonNew York11346726241.8103.6%
WayneNew York14052747265.4113.7%
WestchesterNew York1295573558225.896.7%
WyomingNew York6031394191.181.9%
YatesNew York4916381299.1128.1%
AdamsOhio5821705267.2114.5%
AllenOhio17173303233.399.9%
AshlandOhio7529785251.8107.9%
AshtabulaOhio16068674233.099.8%
AthensOhio12946166279.4119.7%
AuglaizeOhio7228037256.8110.0%
BelmontOhio25295614263.6112.9%
BrownOhio4321638198.785.1%
ButlerOhio307120249255.3109.4%
CarrollOhio4117449235.0100.6%
ChampaignOhio4725258186.179.7%
ClarkOhio21895647227.997.6%
ClermontOhio7134109208.289.2%
ClintonOhio4822574212.691.1%
ColumbianaOhio24790121274.1117.4%
CoshoctonOhio6830594222.395.2%
CrawfordOhio7435571208.089.1%
CuyahogaOhio30041217250246.8105.7%
DarkeOhio9138831234.3100.4%
DefianceOhio5224367213.491.4%
DelawareOhio5326780197.984.8%
ErieOhio8943201206.088.2%
FairfieldOhio9648490198.084.8%
FayetteOhio6021385280.6120.2%
FranklinOhio890388712229.098.1%
FultonOhio5423626228.697.9%
GalliaOhio6124930244.7104.8%
GeaugaOhio4519430231.699.2%
GreeneOhio7735863214.792.0%
GuernseyOhio8238822211.290.5%
HamiltonOhio1357621987218.293.5%
HancockOhio9440793230.498.7%
HardinOhio7727061284.5121.9%
HarrisonOhio5720313280.6120.2%
HenryOhio6622756290.0124.2%
HighlandOhio5927099217.793.3%
HockingOhio4321504200.085.7%
HolmesOhio3417876190.281.5%
HuronOhio9734800278.7119.4%
JacksonOhio6127004225.996.8%
JeffersonOhio27098129275.1117.9%
KnoxOhio7731024248.2106.3%
LakeOhio13150020261.9112.2%
LawrenceOhio8946705190.681.6%
LickingOhio12262279195.983.9%
LoganOhio5229624175.575.2%
LorainOhio321112390285.6122.3%
LucasOhio763344333221.694.9%
MadisonOhio5421811247.6106.1%
MahoningOhio654240251272.2116.6%
MarionOhio10944898242.8104.0%
MedinaOhio6433034193.783.0%
MeigsOhio7024104290.4124.4%
MercerOhio6026256228.597.9%
MiamiOhio14452632273.6117.2%
MonroeOhio4818641257.5110.3%
MontgomeryOhio688295480232.899.7%
MorganOhio2514227175.775.3%
MorrowOhio2515646159.868.4%
MuskingumOhio16669795237.8101.9%
NobleOhio2614587178.276.3%
OttawaOhio10324360422.8181.1%
PauldingOhio3215527206.188.3%
PerryOhio7931087254.1108.9%
PickawayOhio4627889164.970.7%
PikeOhio3616113223.495.7%
PortageOhio13946660297.9127.6%
PrebleOhio7723329330.1141.4%
PutnamOhio5025016199.985.6%
RichlandOhio16873853227.597.4%
RossOhio11152147212.991.2%
SanduskyOhio9141014221.995.0%
SciotoOhio18386565211.490.6%
SenecaOhio10548499216.592.7%
ShelbyOhio7426071283.8121.6%
St.arkOhio673234887286.5122.7%
SummitOhio940339405277.0118.6%
TrumbullOhio397132315300.0128.5%
TuscarawasOhio16868816244.1104.6%
UnionOhio4320012214.992.0%
Van WertOhio7126759265.3113.7%
VintonOhio2611573224.796.2%
WarrenOhio7529894250.9107.5%
WashingtonOhio11443537261.8112.2%
WayneOhio9750520192.082.2%
WilliamsOhio4525510176.475.6%
WoodOhio11551796222.095.1%
WyandotOhio4219218218.593.6%
AdairOklahoma4615755292.0125.1%
AlfalfaOklahoma3014129212.391.0%
AtokaOklahoma4118702219.293.9%
BeaverOklahoma178648196.684.2%
BeckhamOklahoma5522169248.1106.3%
BlaineOklahoma3918543210.390.1%
BryanOklahoma8338138217.693.2%
CaddoOklahoma8941567214.191.7%
CanadianOklahoma4827329175.675.2%
CarterOklahoma8543292196.384.1%
CherokeeOklahoma6321030299.6128.3%
ChoctawOklahoma5828358204.587.6%
CimarronOklahoma153654410.5175.8%
ClevelandOklahoma7527728270.5115.9%
CoalOklahoma1612811124.953.5%
ComancheOklahoma9338988238.5102.2%
CottonOklahoma3212884248.4106.4%
CraigOklahoma5021083237.2101.6%
CreekOklahoma11855503212.691.1%
CusterOklahoma6023068260.1111.4%
DelawareOklahoma2518592134.557.6%
DeweyOklahoma3011981250.4107.3%
EllisOklahoma288466330.7141.7%
GarfieldOklahoma11945484261.6112.1%
GarvinOklahoma7431150237.6101.8%
GradyOklahoma7941116192.182.3%
GrantOklahoma3413128259.0110.9%
GreerOklahoma3614550247.4106.0%
HarmonOklahoma3010019299.4128.3%
HarperOklahoma166454247.9106.2%
HaskellOklahoma4317324248.2106.3%
HughesOklahoma7129189243.2104.2%
JacksonOklahoma6422708281.8120.7%
JeffersonOklahoma3215107211.890.7%
JohnstonOklahoma3115960194.283.2%
KayOklahoma13147084278.2119.2%
KingfisherOklahoma2015617128.154.9%
KiowaOklahoma4422817192.882.6%
LatimerOklahoma3112380250.4107.3%
Le FloreOklahoma10545866228.998.1%
LincolnOklahoma6929529233.7100.1%
LoganOklahoma4925245194.183.1%
LoveOklahoma2111433183.778.7%
MajorOklahoma2511946209.389.6%
MarshallOklahoma2412384193.883.0%
MayesOklahoma5421668249.2106.8%
McclainOklahoma4319205223.995.9%
MccurtainOklahoma9441318227.597.5%
McintoshOklahoma5124097211.690.7%
MurrayOklahoma2113841151.765.0%
MuskogeeOklahoma14465914218.593.6%
NobleOklahoma4214826283.3121.3%
NowataOklahoma4115774259.9111.3%
OkfuskeeOklahoma5826279220.794.5%
OklahomaOklahoma580244159237.6101.8%
OkmulgeeOklahoma12850101255.5109.4%
OsageOklahoma10641502255.4109.4%
OttawaOklahoma7735849214.892.0%
PawneeOklahoma5517395316.2135.4%
PayneOklahoma10736057296.8127.1%
PittsburgOklahoma10748985218.493.6%
PontotocOklahoma10339792258.8110.9%
PottawatomieOklahoma10754377196.884.3%
PushmatahaOklahoma5519466282.5121.0%
Roger MillsOklahoma1910736177.075.8%
RogersOklahoma4921078232.599.6%
SeminoleOklahoma11361201184.679.1%
SequoyahOklahoma4923138211.890.7%
St.ephensOklahoma6331090202.686.8%
TexasOklahoma269896262.7112.5%
TillmanOklahoma3420754163.870.2%
TulsaOklahoma511193363264.3113.2%
WagonerOklahoma4521642207.989.1%
WashingtonOklahoma9130559297.8127.6%
WashitaOklahoma4122279184.078.8%
WoodsOklahoma4314915288.3123.5%
WoodwardOklahoma3616270221.394.8%
BakerOregon4218297229.598.3%
BentonOregon5518629295.2126.5%
ClackamasOregon11157130194.383.2%
ClatsopOregon4524697182.278.0%
ColumbiaOregon5020971238.4102.1%
CoosOregon7532466231.099.0%
CrookOregon145533253.0108.4%
CurryOregon124301279.0119.5%
DeschutesOregon4918631263.0112.7%
DouglasOregon6725728260.4111.5%
GilliamOregon72844246.1105.4%
GrantOregon146380219.494.0%
HarneyOregon115374204.787.7%
Hood RiverOregon2111580181.377.7%
JacksonOregon11636213320.3137.2%
JeffersonOregon112042538.7230.7%
JosephineOregon3816301233.199.9%
KlamathOregon11340497279.0119.5%
LakeOregon216293333.7142.9%
LaneOregon17769096256.2109.7%
LincolnOregon2814549192.582.4%
LinnOregon8330485272.3116.6%
MalheurOregon4519767227.797.5%
MarionOregon16375246216.692.8%
MorrowOregon134337299.7128.4%
MultnomahOregon965355099271.8116.4%
PolkOregon3719989185.179.3%
ShermanOregon132321560.1239.9%
TillamookOregon4912263399.6171.2%
UmatillaOregon8626030330.4141.5%
UnionOregon3717399212.791.1%
WallowaOregon197623249.2106.8%
WascoOregon2213069168.372.1%
WashingtonOregon9239194234.7100.5%
WheelerOregon132974437.1187.2%
YamhillOregon7226336273.4117.1%
AdamsPennsylvania11039435278.9119.5%
AlleghenyPennsylvania39821411539282.1120.8%
ArmstrongPennsylvania26481087325.6139.5%
BeaverPennsylvania479156754305.6130.9%
BedfordPennsylvania10940809267.1114.4%
BerksPennsylvania619241884255.9109.6%
BlairPennsylvania453140358322.7138.2%
BradfordPennsylvania11850615233.199.9%
BucksPennsylvania264107715245.1105.0%
ButlerPennsylvania22887590260.3111.5%
CambriaPennsylvania696213459326.1139.7%
CameronPennsylvania266852379.5162.5%
CarbonPennsylvania21561735348.3149.2%
CentrePennsylvania13652608258.5110.7%
ChesterPennsylvania314135626231.599.2%
ClarionPennsylvania11238410291.6124.9%
ClearfieldPennsylvania26392094285.6122.3%
ClintonPennsylvania11534557332.8142.5%
ColumbiaPennsylvania17551413340.4145.8%
CrawfordPennsylvania16671644231.799.2%
CumberlandPennsylvania19974806266.0113.9%
DauphinPennsylvania447177410252.0107.9%
DelawarePennsylvania754310756242.6103.9%
ElkPennsylvania10334443299.0128.1%
EriePennsylvania514180889284.2121.7%
FayettePennsylvania639200999317.9136.2%
ForestPennsylvania175791293.6125.7%
FranklinPennsylvania18469378265.2113.6%
FultonPennsylvania2710673253.0108.4%
GreenePennsylvania12344671275.3117.9%
HuntingdonPennsylvania12941836308.3132.1%
IndianaPennsylvania26279854328.1140.5%
JeffersonPennsylvania15754090290.3124.3%
JuniataPennsylvania3915373253.7108.7%
LackawannaPennsylvania846301243280.8120.3%
LancasterPennsylvania453212504213.291.3%
LawrencePennsylvania28096877289.0123.8%
LebanonPennsylvania20472641280.8120.3%
LehighPennsylvania391177533220.294.3%
LuzernePennsylvania1216441518275.4118.0%
LycomingPennsylvania25293633269.1115.3%
MckeanPennsylvania16456673289.4124.0%
MercerPennsylvania239101039236.5101.3%
MifflinPennsylvania9742993225.696.6%
MonroePennsylvania8129802271.8116.4%
MontgomeryPennsylvania654289247226.196.9%
MontourPennsylvania4315466278.0119.1%
NorthamptonPennsylvania474168959280.5120.2%
NorthumberlandPennsylvania407126887320.8137.4%
PerryPennsylvania5623213241.2103.3%
PhiladelphiaPennsylvania43921931334227.497.4%
PikePennsylvania237452308.6132.2%
PotterPennsylvania3318201181.377.7%
SchuylkillPennsylvania680228331297.8127.6%
SnyderPennsylvania5020208247.4106.0%
SomersetPennsylvania28184957330.8141.7%
SullivanPennsylvania277504359.8154.1%
SusquehannaPennsylvania8833893259.6111.2%
TiogaPennsylvania10335004294.3126.0%
UnionPennsylvania4120247202.586.7%
VenangoPennsylvania14363958223.695.8%
WarrenPennsylvania12342789287.5123.1%
WashingtonPennsylvania649210852307.8131.8%
WaynePennsylvania8129934270.6115.9%
WestmorelandPennsylvania940303411309.8132.7%
WyomingPennsylvania3616702215.592.3%
YorkPennsylvania396178022222.495.3%
BristolRhode Island5925548230.998.9%
KentRhode Island16058311274.4117.5%
NewportRhode Island9046696192.782.6%
ProvidenceRhode Island1258550298228.697.9%
WashingtonRhode Island7632493233.9100.2%
AbbevilleSouth Carolina4722931205.087.8%
AikenSouth Carolina6749916134.257.5%
AllendaleSouth Carolina1813040138.059.1%
AndersonSouth Carolina18188712204.087.4%
BambergSouth Carolina181864396.641.4%
BarnwellSouth Carolina192013894.340.4%
BeaufortSouth Carolina3122037140.760.3%
BerkeleySouth Carolina2827128103.244.2%
CalhounSouth Carolina161622998.642.2%
CharlestonSouth Carolina166121105137.158.7%
CherokeeSouth Carolina7233290216.392.6%
ChesterSouth Carolina5032579153.565.7%
ChesterfieldSouth Carolina5935963164.170.3%
ClarendonSouth Carolina4531500142.961.2%
ColletonSouth Carolina4626268175.175.0%
DarlingtonSouth Carolina7745198170.473.0%
DillonSouth Carolina4329625145.162.2%
DorchesterSouth Carolina2819928140.560.2%
EdgefieldSouth Carolina1917894106.245.5%
FairfieldSouth Carolina3624187148.863.8%
FlorenceSouth Carolina11670582164.370.4%
GeorgetownSouth Carolina2926352110.047.1%
GreenvilleSouth Carolina324136580237.2101.6%
GreenwoodSouth Carolina9040083224.596.2%
HamptonSouth Carolina2617465148.963.8%
HorrySouth Carolina7051951134.757.7%
JasperSouth Carolina111101199.942.8%
KershawSouth Carolina6932913209.689.8%
LancasterSouth Carolina6433542190.881.7%
LaurensSouth Carolina10044185226.396.9%
LeeSouth Carolina222490888.337.8%
LexingtonSouth Carolina7635994211.190.4%
MarionSouth Carolina5830107192.682.5%
MarlboroSouth Carolina4933281147.263.1%
MccormickSouth Carolina1810367173.674.4%
NewberrySouth Carolina6533577193.682.9%
OconeeSouth Carolina10436512284.8122.0%
OrangeburgSouth Carolina6763707105.245.0%
PickensSouth Carolina9737111261.4112.0%
RichlandSouth Carolina199104843189.881.3%
SaludaSouth Carolina2717192157.067.3%
SpartanburgSouth Carolina316127733247.4106.0%
SumterSouth Carolina7152463135.358.0%
UnionSouth Carolina7231360229.698.3%
WilliamsburgSouth Carolina5141011124.453.3%
YorkSouth Carolina11558663196.084.0%
ArmstrongSouth Dakota1422381.01019.9%
AuroraSouth Dakota85387148.563.6%
BeadleSouth Dakota5019648254.5109.0%
BennettSouth Dakota143983351.5150.6%
Bon HommeSouth Dakota2110241205.187.8%
BrookingsSouth Dakota5016560301.9129.3%
BrownSouth Dakota5529676185.379.4%
BruleSouth Dakota126195193.783.0%
BuffaloSouth Dakota41853215.992.5%
ButteSouth Dakota218004262.4112.4%
CampbellSouth Dakota75033139.159.6%
Charles MixSouth Dakota1913449141.360.5%
ClarkSouth Dakota148955156.367.0%
ClaySouth Dakota169592166.871.5%
CodingtonSouth Dakota3617014211.690.6%
CorsonSouth Dakota166755236.9101.5%
CusterSouth Dakota216023348.7149.3%
DavisonSouth Dakota3515336228.297.8%
DaySouth Dakota3713565272.8116.8%
DeuelSouth Dakota158450177.576.0%
DeweySouth Dakota165709280.3120.0%
DouglasSouth Dakota156348236.3101.2%
EdmundsSouth Dakota197814243.2104.2%
Fall RiverSouth Dakota288089346.1148.3%
FaulkSouth Dakota135168251.5107.8%
GrantSouth Dakota1710552161.169.0%
GregorySouth Dakota199554198.985.2%
HaakonSouth Dakota63515170.773.1%
HamlinSouth Dakota137562171.973.6%
HandSouth Dakota197166265.1113.6%
HansonSouth Dakota105400185.279.3%
HardingSouth Dakota83010265.8113.8%
HughesSouth Dakota106624151.064.7%
HutchinsonSouth Dakota2612668205.287.9%
HydeSouth Dakota73113224.996.3%
JacksonSouth Dakota31955153.565.7%
JerauldSouth Dakota144752294.6126.2%
JonesSouth Dakota102509398.6170.7%
KingsburySouth Dakota2810831258.5110.7%
LakeSouth Dakota3912412314.2134.6%
LawrenceSouth Dakota4619093240.9103.2%
LincolnSouth Dakota1513171113.948.8%
LymanSouth Dakota105045198.284.9%
MarshallSouth Dakota228880247.7106.1%
MccookSouth Dakota209793204.287.5%
McphersonSouth Dakota228353263.4112.8%
MeadeSouth Dakota269735267.1114.4%
MelletteSouth Dakota84107194.883.4%
MinerSouth Dakota116836160.968.9%
MinnehahaSouth Dakota12457697214.992.1%
MoodySouth Dakota169341171.373.4%
PenningtonSouth Dakota6223799260.5111.6%
PerkinsSouth Dakota126585182.278.1%
PotterSouth Dakota144614303.4130.0%
RobertsSouth Dakota2515887157.467.4%
SanbornSouth Dakota125754208.689.3%
ShannonSouth Dakota155366279.5119.7%
SpinkSouth Dakota2012527159.768.4%
St.anleySouth Dakota31959153.165.6%
SullySouth Dakota62668224.996.3%
ToddSouth Dakota155714262.5112.4%
TrippSouth Dakota349937342.2146.6%
TurnerSouth Dakota2713270203.587.2%
UnionSouth Dakota2211675188.480.7%
WalworthSouth Dakota167274220.094.2%
Washabaugh (ext)South Dakota31980151.564.9%
WashingtonSouth Dakota51789279.5119.7%
YanktonSouth Dakota2716725161.469.2%
ZiebachSouth Dakota72875243.5104.3%
AndersonTennessee5426504203.787.3%
BedfordTennessee4523151194.483.3%
BentonTennessee3211976267.2114.5%
BledsoeTennessee238358275.2117.9%
BlountTennessee11441116277.3118.8%
BradleyTennessee7428498259.7111.2%
CampbellTennessee10431131334.1143.1%
CannonTennessee209880202.486.7%
CarrollTennessee5425978207.989.0%
CarterTennessee8935127253.4108.5%
CheathamTennessee359928352.5151.0%
ChesterTennessee2211124197.884.7%
ClaiborneTennessee5924657239.3102.5%
ClayTennessee2110904192.682.5%
CockeTennessee4624083191.081.8%
CoffeeTennessee4818959253.2108.4%
CrockettTennessee3317330190.481.6%
CumberlandTennessee4915592314.3134.6%
DavidsonTennessee534257267207.688.9%
DecaturTennessee2310261224.196.0%
DekalbTennessee2214588150.864.6%
DicksonTennessee4419718223.195.6%
DyerTennessee7434920211.990.8%
FayetteTennessee273032289.038.1%
FentressTennessee5514262385.6165.2%
FranklinTennessee5823892242.8104.0%
GibsonTennessee9444835209.789.8%
GilesTennessee6229240212.090.8%
GraingerTennessee2914356202.086.5%
GreeneTennessee9839405248.7106.5%
GrundyTennessee2511552216.492.7%
HamblenTennessee5318611284.8122.0%
HamiltonTennessee410180478227.297.3%
HancockTennessee1411231124.753.4%
HardemanTennessee3623590152.665.4%
HardinTennessee5517806308.9132.3%
HawkinsTennessee8028523280.5120.1%
HaywoodTennessee252769990.338.7%
HendersonTennessee4119220213.391.4%
HenryTennessee6625877255.1109.3%
HickmanTennessee4114873275.7118.1%
HoustonTennessee116432171.073.3%
HumphreysTennessee3212421257.6110.4%
JacksonTennessee3615082238.7102.2%
JeffersonTennessee7918621424.3181.7%
JohnsonTennessee3412998261.6112.0%
KnoxTennessee454178468254.4109.0%
LakeTennessee2611235231.499.1%
LauderdaleTennessee4324461175.875.3%
LawrenceTennessee6428726222.895.4%
LewisTennessee185849307.7131.8%
LincolnTennessee5227214191.181.8%
LoudonTennessee6319838317.6136.0%
MaconTennessee3614904241.5103.5%
MadisonTennessee9154115168.272.0%
MarionTennessee4319140224.796.2%
MarshallTennessee2616030162.269.5%
MauryTennessee8240357203.287.0%
McminnTennessee7930781256.7109.9%
McnairyTennessee4620424225.296.5%
MeigsTennessee136393203.387.1%
MonroeTennessee6724275276.0118.2%
MontgomeryTennessee6133346182.978.4%
MooreTennessee84093195.583.7%
MorganTennessee4415242288.7123.7%
ObionTennessee5430978174.374.7%
OvertonTennessee4518883238.3102.1%
PerryTennessee157535199.185.3%
PickettTennessee166213257.5110.3%
PolkTennessee3815473245.6105.2%
PutnamTennessee6826250259.0111.0%
RheaTennessee4916353299.6128.3%
RoaneTennessee9227795331.0141.8%
RobertsonTennessee3729046127.454.6%
RutherfordTennessee5333604157.767.6%
ScottTennessee6015966375.8161.0%
SequatchieTennessee145038277.9119.0%
SevierTennessee6923291296.3126.9%
ShelbyTennessee662358250184.879.2%
SmithTennessee4016148247.7106.1%
St.ewartTennessee2513549184.579.0%
SullivanTennessee16869085243.2104.2%
SumnerTennessee6532719198.785.1%
TiptonTennessee4928036174.874.9%
TrousdaleTennessee126113196.384.1%
UnicoiTennessee5414128382.2163.7%
UnionTennessee139030144.061.7%
Van BurenTennessee94090220.094.3%
WarrenTennessee4419764222.695.4%
WashingtonTennessee13751631265.3113.7%
WayneTennessee3213638234.6100.5%
WeakleyTennessee5129498172.974.1%
WhiteTennessee4715983294.1126.0%
WilliamsonTennessee5625220222.095.1%
WilsonTennessee5225267205.888.2%
AndersonTexas7037092188.780.8%
AndrewsTexas81277626.5268.3%
AngelinaTexas7732201239.1102.4%
AransasTexas93469259.4111.1%
ArcherTexas267599342.2146.6%
ArmstrongTexas82495320.6137.3%
AtascosaTexas5019275259.4111.1%
AustinTexas4117384235.8101.0%
BaileyTexas126318189.981.4%
BanderaTexas144234330.7141.6%
BastropTexas5921610273.0116.9%
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DallasTexas1038398564260.4111.6%
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EctorTexas3615051239.2102.5%
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ErathTexas7520760361.3154.8%
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FrioTexas159207162.969.8%
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GillespieTexas2210670206.288.3%
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GoliadTexas218798238.7102.2%
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GrayTexas6023911250.9107.5%
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GreggTexas12758027218.993.7%
GrimesTexas3521960159.468.3%
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HaleTexas5918813313.6134.3%
HallTexas4112117338.4144.9%
HamiltonTexas4313303323.2138.5%
HansfordTexas102783359.3153.9%
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HardinTexas2915875182.778.2%
HarrisTexas1059528961200.285.8%
HarrisonTexas5950900115.949.7%
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HopkinsTexas6730274221.394.8%
HoustonTexas9131137292.3125.2%
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HudspethTexas73149222.395.2%
HuntTexas11748793239.8102.7%
HutchinsonTexas4219069220.394.3%
IrionTexas61963305.7130.9%
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Jeff DavisTexas52375210.590.2%
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Jim HoggTexas105449183.578.6%
Jim WellsTexas5820239286.6122.8%
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KaufmanTexas7438308193.282.7%
KendallTexas105080196.984.3%
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KerrTexas3111650266.1114.0%
KimbleTexas145064276.5118.4%
KingTexas010660.00.0%
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KlebergTexas3513344262.3112.4%
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LambTexas4217606238.6102.2%
LampasasTexas289167305.4130.8%
La SalleTexas308003374.9160.6%
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LeeTexas2112751164.770.5%
LeonTexas4217733236.8101.5%
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LimestoneTexas7633781225.096.4%
LipscombTexas103764265.7113.8%
Live OakTexas149799142.961.2%
LlanoTexas135996216.892.9%
LovingTexas42851403.5601.2%
LubbockTexas17151782330.2141.5%
LynnTexas3511931293.4125.7%
MadisonTexas1312029108.146.3%
MarionTexas101145787.337.4%
MartinTexas155556270.0115.6%
MasonTexas145378260.3111.5%
MatagordaTexas4720066234.2100.3%
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MccullochTexas4213208318.0136.2%
MclennanTexas291101898285.6122.3%
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MedinaTexas2316106142.861.2%
MenardTexas214521464.5199.0%
MidlandTexas4111721349.8149.8%
MilamTexas7333120220.494.4%
MillsTexas197951239.0102.4%
MitchellTexas3512477280.5120.2%
MontagueTexas5620442273.9117.3%
MontgomeryTexas4423055190.881.7%
MooreTexas134461291.4124.8%
MorrisTexas229810224.396.1%
MotleyTexas104994200.285.8%
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NavarroTexas11651308226.196.8%
NewtonTexas131370094.940.6%
NolanTexas6417309369.7158.4%
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OchiltreeTexas124213284.8122.0%
OldhamTexas81385577.6247.4%
OrangeTexas5217382299.2128.1%
Palo PintoTexas4818456260.1111.4%
PanolaTexas3422513151.064.7%
ParkerTexas6220482302.7129.7%
ParmerTexas155890254.7109.1%
PecosTexas238185281.0120.4%
PolkTexas4320635208.489.3%
PotterTexas16654265305.9131.0%
PresidioTexas2910925265.4113.7%
RainsTexas167334218.293.4%
RandallTexas177185236.6101.3%
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Red RiverTexas8429769282.2120.9%
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RobertsTexas51289387.9166.2%
RobertsonTexas4725710182.878.3%
RockwallTexas177051241.1103.3%
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SabineTexas2110896192.782.6%
San AugustineTexas2212471176.475.6%
San JacintoTexas159056165.670.9%
San PatricioTexas4928871169.772.7%
San SabaTexas2111012190.781.7%
SchleicherTexas3308397.341.7%
ScurryTexas4511545389.8167.0%
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ShermanTexas52026246.8105.7%
SmithTexas11569090166.471.3%
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St.ephensTexas3312356267.1114.4%
St.erlingTexas41404284.9122.0%
St.onewallTexas145589250.5107.3%
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SwisherTexas266528398.3170.6%
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TaylorTexas13544147305.8131.0%
TerrellTexas162952542.0232.2%
TerryTexas3611160322.6138.2%
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TitusTexas4619228239.2102.5%
Tom GreenTexas10139302257.0110.1%
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TylerTexas2911948242.7104.0%
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Val VerdeTexas4315453278.3119.2%
Van ZandtTexas7031155224.796.2%
VictoriaTexas7423741311.7133.5%
WalkerTexas3619868181.277.6%
WallerTexas1810280175.175.0%
WardTexas279575282.0120.8%
WashingtonTexas3925387153.665.8%
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WhartonTexas6136158168.772.3%
WheelerTexas3612411290.1124.2%
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WilbargerTexas5220474254.0108.8%
WillacyTexas2513230189.080.9%
WilliamsonTexas7441698177.576.0%
WilsonTexas3917066228.597.9%
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WiseTexas5419074283.1121.3%
WoodTexas7624360312.0133.6%
YoakumTexas75354130.756.0%
YoungTexas6519004342.0146.5%
ZapataTexas73916178.876.6%
ZavalaTexas2811603241.3103.4%
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Box ElderUtah5918832313.3134.2%
CacheUtah8229797275.2117.9%
CarbonUtah5518459298.0127.6%
DaggettUtah3564531.9227.8%
DavisUtah4015784253.4108.6%
DuchesneUtah278958301.4129.1%
EmeryUtah167072226.296.9%
GarfieldUtah155253285.6122.3%
GrandUtah82070386.5165.5%
IronUtah218331252.1108.0%
JuabUtah127392162.369.5%
KaneUtah72561273.3117.1%
MillardUtah289613291.3124.8%
MorganUtah122611459.6196.9%
PiuteUtah32203136.258.3%
RichUtah92028443.8190.1%
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SanpeteUtah4316063267.7114.7%
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TooeleUtah269133284.7121.9%
UintahUtah309898303.1129.8%
UtahUtah14957382259.7111.2%
WasatchUtah185754312.8134.0%
WashingtonUtah319269334.4143.3%
WayneUtah32394125.353.7%
WeberUtah16056714282.1120.8%
AccomackVirginia4333030130.255.8%
AlbemarleVirginia10824652438.1187.7%
AlleghanyVirginia7622688335.0143.5%
AmeliaVirginia168495188.380.7%
AmherstVirginia3920273192.482.4%
AppomattoxVirginia149020155.266.5%
ArlingtonVirginia22557040394.5169.0%
AugustaVirginia12542772292.2125.2%
BathVirginia297191403.3172.7%
BedfordVirginia8029687269.5115.4%
BlandVirginia196731282.3120.9%
BotetourtVirginia1916447115.549.5%
BrunswickVirginia2419575122.652.5%
BuchananVirginia6531477206.588.5%
BuckinghamVirginia2713398201.586.3%
CampbellVirginia17026048652.6279.6%
CarolineVirginia1413945100.443.0%
CarrollVirginia5725904220.094.3%
Charles CityVirginia74275163.770.1%
CharlotteVirginia4915861308.9132.3%
ChesterfieldVirginia5231183166.871.4%
ClarkeVirginia267159363.2155.6%
CraigVirginia83769212.390.9%
CulpeperVirginia2613365194.583.3%
CumberlandVirginia107505133.257.1%
DickensonVirginia6421266300.9128.9%
DinwiddieVirginia10018166550.5235.8%
Elizabeth CityVirginia8732283269.5115.4%
EssexVirginia197006271.2116.2%
FairfaxVirginia7040929171.073.3%
FauquierVirginia5521039261.4112.0%
FloydVirginia3411967284.1121.7%
FluvannaVirginia187088254.0108.8%
FranklinVirginia5025864193.382.8%
FrederickVirginia5714008406.9174.3%
GilesVirginia4714635321.1137.6%
GloucesterVirginia149548146.662.8%
GoochlandVirginia158454177.476.0%
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GreeneVirginia165218306.6131.3%
GreensvilleVirginia1714866114.449.0%
HalifaxVirginia7641271184.178.9%
HanoverVirginia3318500178.476.4%
HenricoVirginia483419601151.1493.1%
HenryVirginia9726481366.3156.9%
HighlandVirginia184875369.2158.2%
Isle Of WightVirginia121338189.738.4%
James CityVirginia204907407.6174.6%
King And QueenVirginia146954201.386.2%
King GeorgeVirginia155431276.2118.3%
King WilliamVirginia137855165.570.9%
LancasterVirginia168786182.178.0%
LeeVirginia10139296257.0110.1%
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LouisaVirginia2013665146.462.7%
LunenburgVirginia3913844281.7120.7%
MadisonVirginia218465248.1106.3%
MathewsVirginia107149139.959.9%
MecklenburgVirginia5231933162.869.8%
MiddlesexVirginia116673164.870.6%
MontgomeryVirginia10721206504.6216.1%
Nansemond (ext)Virginia4322771188.880.9%
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New KentVirginia64092146.662.8%
Norfolk (city)Virginia502144332347.8149.0%
NorthamptonVirginia4617597261.4112.0%
NorthumberlandVirginia1210463114.749.1%
NottowayVirginia3515556225.096.4%
OrangeVirginia2312649181.877.9%
PageVirginia1914863127.854.8%
PatrickVirginia3516613210.790.2%
PittsylvaniaVirginia19961697322.5138.2%
PowhatanVirginia205671352.7151.1%
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Prince GeorgeVirginia4012226327.2140.1%
Prince WilliamVirginia2917738163.570.0%
PulaskiVirginia5222767228.497.8%
RappahannockVirginia147208194.283.2%
RichmondVirginia546634814.0348.7%
RoanokeVirginia31542897734.3314.5%
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RockinghamVirginia8931289284.4121.8%
RussellVirginia6726627251.6107.8%
ScottVirginia5926989218.693.6%
ShenandoahVirginia5220898248.8106.6%
SmythVirginia7628861263.3112.8%
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SpotsylvaniaVirginia469905464.4198.9%
St.affordVirginia159548157.167.3%
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SussexVirginia1512485120.151.5%
TazewellVirginia13041607312.4133.8%
WarrenVirginia2711352237.8101.9%
WarwickVirginia10192481092.1467.8%
WashingtonVirginia12038197314.2134.6%
WestmorelandVirginia209512210.390.1%
WiseVirginia16552458314.5134.7%
WytheVirginia6622721290.5124.4%
YorkVirginia7885779.033.9%
AddisonVermont5317944295.4126.5%
BenningtonVermont5222286233.399.9%
CaledoniaVermont5024320205.688.1%
ChittendenVermont14052098268.7115.1%
EssexVermont226490339.0145.2%
FranklinVermont6329601212.891.2%
Grand IsleVermont103802263.0112.7%
LamoilleVermont2811028253.9108.8%
OrangeVermont2117048123.252.8%
OrleansVermont6421718294.7126.2%
RutlandVermont11045638241.0103.2%
WashingtonVermont8641546207.088.7%
WindhamVermont5827850208.389.2%
WindsorVermont10237862269.4115.4%
AdamsWashington136209209.489.7%
AsotinWashington258365298.9128.0%
BentonWashington3412053282.1120.8%
ChelanWashington6134412177.375.9%
ClallamWashington4521848206.088.2%
ClarkWashington15049852300.9128.9%
ColumbiaWashington195549342.4146.7%
CowlitzWashington9240155229.198.1%
DouglasWashington178651196.584.2%
FerryWashington114701234.0100.2%
FranklinWashington216307333.0142.6%
GarfieldWashington73383206.988.6%
GrantWashington2514668170.473.0%
Grays HarborWashington12153166227.697.5%
IslandWashington106098164.070.2%
JeffersonWashington168918179.476.9%
KingWashington1106504980219.093.8%
KitsapWashington14244387319.9137.0%
KittitasWashington5720230281.8120.7%
KlickitatWashington2211357193.783.0%
LewisWashington11041393265.7113.8%
LincolnWashington2811361246.5105.6%
MasonWashington2811603241.3103.4%
OkanoganWashington4524546183.378.5%
PacificWashington3315928207.288.7%
Pend OreilleWashington157156209.689.8%
PierceWashington417182081229.098.1%
San JuanWashington53157158.467.8%
SkagitWashington8137650215.192.2%
SkamaniaWashington4463386.337.0%
SnohomishWashington18988754212.991.2%
SpokaneWashington396164652240.5103.0%
St.evensWashington5219275269.8115.6%
ThurstonWashington6737285179.777.0%
WahkiakumWashington3428670.030.0%
Walla WallaWashington7030547229.298.2%
WhatcomWashington11460355188.980.9%
WhitmanWashington4527221165.370.8%
YakimaWashington22499019226.296.9%
AdamsWisconsin108449118.450.7%
AshlandWisconsin6821801311.9133.6%
BarronWisconsin6934289201.286.2%
BayfieldWisconsin3815827240.1102.8%
BrownWisconsin18583109222.695.3%
BuffaloWisconsin2416090149.263.9%
BurnettWisconsin2411382210.990.3%
CalumetWisconsin2917618164.670.5%
ChippewaWisconsin7840703191.682.1%
ClarkWisconsin8033972235.5100.9%
ColumbiaWisconsin7332517224.596.2%
CrawfordWisconsin3818328207.388.8%
DaneWisconsin330130660252.6108.2%
DodgeWisconsin9554280175.075.0%
DoorWisconsin4019095209.589.7%
DouglasWisconsin14347119303.5130.0%
DunnWisconsin6127375222.895.4%
Eau ClaireWisconsin8446999178.776.6%
FlorenceWisconsin104177239.4102.5%
Fond Du LacWisconsin12762353203.787.2%
ForestWisconsin3111805262.6112.5%
GrantWisconsin8840639216.592.8%
GreenWisconsin232314699.442.6%
Green LakeWisconsin2914092205.888.1%
IowaWisconsin3420595165.170.7%
IronWisconsin3410049338.3144.9%
JacksonWisconsin3916599235.0100.6%
JeffersonWisconsin7638868195.583.8%
JuneauWisconsin4118708219.293.9%
KenoshaWisconsin15163505237.8101.9%
KewauneeWisconsin3216680191.882.2%
La CrosseWisconsin12559653209.589.8%
LafayetteWisconsin3918695208.689.4%
LangladeWisconsin6823227292.8125.4%
LincolnWisconsin5922536261.8112.1%
ManitowocWisconsin13161617212.691.1%
MarathonWisconsin15275915200.285.8%
MarinetteWisconsin7836225215.392.2%
MarquetteWisconsin179097186.980.0%
MilwaukeeWisconsin1684766885219.694.1%
MonroeWisconsin7330080242.7104.0%
OcontoWisconsin6027075221.694.9%
OneidaWisconsin6118938322.1138.0%
OutagamieWisconsin15570032221.394.8%
OzaukeeWisconsin4418985231.899.3%
PepinWisconsin117897139.359.7%
PierceWisconsin5621471260.8111.7%
PolkWisconsin5426197206.188.3%
PortageWisconsin8535800237.4101.7%
PriceWisconsin6918467373.6160.0%
RacineWisconsin24594047260.5111.6%
RichlandWisconsin3820381186.479.9%
RockWisconsin23780173295.6126.6%
RuskWisconsin3417737191.782.1%
SaukWisconsin8933700264.1113.1%
SawyerWisconsin3911540338.0144.8%
ShawanoWisconsin7435378209.289.6%
SheboyganWisconsin15376221200.786.0%
St CroixWisconsin4624842185.279.3%
TaylorWisconsin3920105194.083.1%
TrempealeauWisconsin4824381196.984.3%
VernonWisconsin5129940170.373.0%
VilasWisconsin238894258.6110.8%
WalworthWisconsin6433103193.382.8%
WashburnWisconsin2612496208.189.1%
WashingtonWisconsin5728430200.585.9%
WaukeshaWisconsin12162744192.882.6%
WaupacaWisconsin5634614161.869.3%
WausharaWisconsin2114268147.263.0%
WinnebagoWisconsin16480507203.787.3%
WoodWisconsin12344465276.6118.5%
BarbourWest Virginia4019869201.386.2%
BerkeleyWest Virginia7729016265.4113.7%
BooneWest Virginia7728556269.6115.5%
BraxtonWest Virginia6821658314.0134.5%
BrookeWest Virginia8725513341.0146.1%
CabellWest Virginia20897459213.491.4%
CalhounWest Virginia2412455192.782.5%
ClayWest Virginia4815206315.7135.2%
DoddridgeWest Virginia2910923265.5113.7%
FayetteWest Virginia22380628276.6118.5%
GilmerWest Virginia2312046190.981.8%
GrantWest Virginia188805204.487.6%
GreenbrierWest Virginia8838520228.597.9%
HampshireWest Virginia3612974277.5118.9%
HancockWest Virginia11131572351.6150.6%
HardyWest Virginia2510813231.299.0%
HarrisonWest Virginia20182911242.4103.8%
JacksonWest Virginia3816598228.998.1%
JeffersonWest Virginia3316762196.984.3%
KanawhaWest Virginia500195619255.6109.5%
LewisWest Virginia5622271251.4107.7%
LincolnWest Virginia6922886301.5129.1%
LoganWest Virginia16767768246.4105.6%
MarionWest Virginia17368683251.9107.9%
MarshallWest Virginia10340189256.3109.8%
MasonWest Virginia5822270260.4111.6%
McdowellWest Virginia23594354249.1106.7%
MercerWest Virginia17368289253.3108.5%
MineralWest Virginia7622215342.1146.5%
MingoWest Virginia8940802218.193.4%
MonongaliaWest Virginia15651252304.4130.4%
MonroeWest Virginia4413577324.1138.8%
MorganWest Virginia258743285.9122.5%
NicholasWest Virginia5824070241.0103.2%
OhioWest Virginia21673115295.4126.5%
PendletonWest Virginia3510884321.6137.7%
PleasantsWest Virginia156692224.196.0%
PocahontasWest Virginia3813906273.3117.1%
PrestonWest Virginia7330416240.0102.8%
PutnamWest Virginia4119511210.190.0%
RaleighWest Virginia20086687230.798.8%
RandolphWest Virginia8430259277.6118.9%
RitchieWest Virginia4815389311.9133.6%
RoaneWest Virginia4920787235.7101.0%
SummersWest Virginia5320409259.7111.2%
TaylorWest Virginia3619919180.777.4%
TuckerWest Virginia3513173265.7113.8%
TylerWest Virginia3412559270.7116.0%
UpshurWest Virginia5418360294.1126.0%
WayneWest Virginia8235566230.698.8%
WebsterWest Virginia4818080265.5113.7%
WetzelWest Virginia5522342246.2105.4%
WirtWest Virginia186475278.0119.1%
WoodWest Virginia10762399171.573.5%
WyomingWest Virginia7429774248.5106.5%
AlbanyWyoming3913946279.7119.8%
Big HornWyoming2712911209.189.6%
CampbellWyoming156048248.0106.2%
CarbonWyoming4812644379.6162.6%
ConverseWyoming186631271.5116.3%
CrookWyoming105463183.078.4%
FremontWyoming3516095217.593.1%
GoshenWyoming2912207237.6101.8%
Hot SpringsWyoming124607260.5111.6%
JohnsonWyoming134980261.0111.8%
LaramieWyoming9833651291.2124.7%
LincolnWyoming2110286204.287.5%
NatronaWyoming5223858218.093.4%
NiobraraWyoming85988133.657.2%
ParkWyoming3210976291.5124.9%
PlatteWyoming258013312.0133.6%
SheridanWyoming4619255238.9102.3%
SubletteWyoming62778216.092.5%
SweetwaterWyoming5019407257.6110.4%
TetonWyoming62543235.9101.1%
UintaWyoming187223249.2106.7%
WashakieWyoming195858324.3138.9%
WestonWyoming154958302.5129.6%
Yellowstone Np (pt)Wyoming04160.00.0%

Graphing the counties according to these statistics reveals something of a “normal” distribution. I should note that sparsely populated counties often exceeded the national norm, although that is often simply a function of math. When Private First Class Keith E. Eberl of Armstrong County, South Dakota, population 42, was killed in action, Armstrong, a county that no longer exists, endured a per capita loss of 2,380 per 100k.

However, as we shall see, what is interesting is that the highly populated counties throughout the country (except for the South, more on that later) fell along the national per capita. Highly populated areas like Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York City sent their boys to fight and die at rates largely in line with the national average (graphic two). The boroughs of New York sent so many of its residents that Army records broke out their losses separately from that of the state of New York. 27,659 New Yorkers were killed in the war.

Graphic 2: This graphic depicts U.S. counties and their relative and absolute Army and Army Air Forces fatalities suffered during the Second World War. Unlike the later wars of the 20th century, the Second World War, thanks to mass mobilization and conscription, led to a generally well-distributed burden in military fatalities. Each dot represents a U.S. county. Each county is colorized and faceted by its region and sized by the number of absolute losses it endured. Each dot is situated on an x-axis determined by its population in 1940 and a y-axis that denotes it’s per capita loss. The national average of 232 and the mean county population in 1940, 83,674 are highlighted.

These regional trends began to change first with Korea and then with Vietnam, but not as dramatically as what would come later. During the Big One, of the top 50 most populated counties, 44 were within 90% (or higher) of the national per 100.2 By the Korean War, it fell dramatically to 14 of the top 50 populated counties but rose again in Vietnam to 23. While the geographical spread had indeed changed by Vietnam, a number of America’s most populous counties still pulled their weight. Los Angeles (26.6), Wayne County, MI (which contains Detriot, 30.97), and Kings County, New York (52.6)3, to name a few, all nearly matched or exceeded the national average (graphic 3).

Graphic 3: This graphic depicts U.S. counties and their relative and absolute military suffered during the Vietnam War. The geographical pattern of Vietnam differed slightly from that of WWII, despite the presence of a draft. Yet, unlike the Global War on Terror, most highly populated counties fell only slightly below the national average, with many exceeding it. Each county is colorized and faceted by its region and sized by the number of absolute losses it endured. Each dot is situated on an x-axis determined by its population in 1970 and a y-axis that denotes its per capita loss. The national average of 28.6 and the mean county population in 1970, 127,285, are highlighted.

This would change dramatically with the end of conscription in 1973, coupled with socioeconomic and cultural changes associated with military service that arose thereafter. The All-Volunteer Force fundamentally transformed the face of the American military. As the Institute for Defense Analyses has noted, starting in the mid-1980s, recruitment in the Northeast dropped off the table and was largely replaced by Southern and Western states. In the wake of Vietnam, many of the North’s elite schools, including the Ivies, pushed ROTC programs off of their campuses. This slack was taken up by schools in the South and the West and contributed to the shift of identifying military service with their respective regions and political cultures.

The result was the accelerated decline of relative military fatalities from America’s most populated places, especially in the North. Only three of the 25 most populated counties during WWII failed to hit 90% of the national per capita average (Bronx County, St. Louis, and Harris County, Texas, 144, 200, and 200, respectively). If we fast forward to the Global War on Terror, only two of the 25 counties exceeded the national per capita average of 2.10 per 100k (using the 2020 census). See graphic 4.

Those two are Erie County, New York, which lost 27 of its residents (2.27 per 100k), and Baltimore City, which lost 25 (4.25 per 100k). Both are “Rusbelt” cities (the former contains Buffalo) that have bled off residents and their respective industrial bases. The economic landscapes of these counties, like rural areas, incentivized military service.

Graphic 4: This graphic depicts the 25 five most populous counties in the United States during World War II and their subsequent relative losses during Korea, Vietnam, and the Global War on Terror. Of the 25, only three failed to meet the national average, but by the GWOT, only two did. Each county’s relative losses are depicted in rows and titled according to war, from left to right: WWII, Korea, Vietnam, and the GWOT. Each county’s per capita loss in each war is depicted by its percentage in relation to the national average and colorized on a green-to-red ramp. Those in yellow did not differ from the national average in their respective war. The redder the tile, the higher the county’s relationship to the national average; the lower the relationship, the greener the tile.

The trend is reinforced by looking at modern population data. Of the 50 most populated counties in the United States (as defined by 2020 data), only seven met or exceeded the national per capita of military fatalities endured in the Global War on Terror. Two of them, San Diego, CA, and Bexar, TX, are military towns, examples of America’s now strained multigenerational military caste.

These transformations have pushed the burden of military fatalities down to less populated counties in the suburbs and exurbs (graphic 5). It should be noted, though, that most large counties still have lost a number of their resident in absolute terms. Los Angeles sacrificed 158, Cook County, 61. Yet these fatalities have been absorbed by massive populations and obscured by the growing socio-economic divide associated with military service. And, in an extreme example, Kings County, New York, population 2.7 million, lost no one in the Global War on Terror.

Graphic 5: This graphic depicts U.S. counties and their relative and absolute military suffered during the Global War on Terror. Each county is colorized and faceted by its region and sized by the number of absolute losses it endured. Each dot is situated on an x-axis determined by its population in 2020 and a y-axis that denotes its per capita loss. The national average of 2.10 and the mean county population in 2020, 103.922, are highlighted.

And now for the not-at-all controversial topic of race.

Remember earlier when I noted that the South lost significantly fewer of its residents relative to its population during WWII? Well, there is a reason for that: racism. A combination of exclusionary practices with the draft coupled with a general antipathy towards black combat troops meant a low number of black American wartime fatalities. Despite a number of notable black combat units in armor, infantry, and aviation, a relatively low number of black Americans died in WWII, an estimated 708.

I say estimated because, interestingly enough, the Army fatality records do not record the race (or sex, for that matter) of the deceased. Therefore, tracking racial statistics (an already fraught practice) is especially tough, and it is made tougher still given the black-and-white manner in which racial statistics were gathered in the U.S. in the 1940s (pardon the tasteless pun). Adding to the confusion was the ambiguity of Latinos in the American racial hierarchy of 1940. Latinos were, however, classified as white and served in integrated units.

Yet, if we plot per capita losses against the white population percentage, the South had a lower per capita loss rate as a region because half of its population was (largely) barred from combat (graphic 6). There were outliers, of course, particularly for a few counties in Virginia, but the general pattern holds.

Graphic 6: This graphic depicts the relative losses endured by states against their white populations in World War Two. A segregated military, hesitancy to draft black Americans, and general hostility toward sending blacks into combat meant fewer black fatalities and, therefore, lower per capita losses endured in the South. Each dot represents a state, colorized by its region, and is situated on an x-axis that depicts the percentage of its population defined as white and on a y-axis that shows its per 100k fatality rate.

The racial patterns of American combat changed after WWII with the continuation of the draft coupled with the integration of the military. While comparisons across time are difficult due to the changing and often capricious nature of American racial statistics, looking at the DoD’s own fatality statistics, it is clear that by Vietnam, the racial breakdown of American combat largely mirrored that of the county at large (see below).

Yet, since the advent of the All-Volunteer Force, the color of combat has become increasingly white. The elimination of the draft and the adoption of volunteer enlistment coupled with a contract system have created de-facto occupational segregation within the U.S. military, a fact that the Army has itself lamented (if for its own political reasons).

This systematic difference in career paths has led to racial disparities in fatalities endured during the Global War on Terror. As the Department of Defense has acknowledged in its own reporting and its own statistics, around 70% of the country’s GWOT fatalities are white, which is higher than the U.S. military and the nation at large.

There are exceptions, of course. While the DCAS data does not list racial statistics for individual soldiers, the records themselves are enlightening. Looking at the names of the fallen in heavily Latino counties, like Los Angeles, reveals a preponderance of Hispanic surnames, and Baltimore, a predominately black city, lost 32 of its residents, a per capita of 4.2, double the national average.

Yet these are the exceptions that prove the rule: America’s combat fatalities, for the first time since WWII, have become disproportionately white even as the military and, indeed, the country at large are becoming less so. They’ve also become disproportionately rural and underrepresented among America’s upper class. Long gone are the days of UCLA or Harvard sending its students and faculty to fight America’s wars.

The elimination of the draft, moral considerations aside, constructed a military caste within the United States, one served by a volunteer system. After 20 years of lost wars and amplifying domestic issues, that system is heavily under strain. As I argued in my earlier piece for antiwar.com:

These disparities in wartime losses expounded upon another conflict, the culture war. Conservatives, who are overrepresented among veterans, have come to view the foreign policy class and similar coastal elites (to include large swaths of the GOP) with abject disdain. While it is true that the US has been awash in militaristic pageantry since 2001, the right sees the national mood as inherently hostile if not downright contemptuous of them and their values. In their eyes, conservative principles are routinely mocked by the same social class which has sent them or their children to die needlessly abroad. Their home states are referred to derisively as “fly over country.” They have been called “bitter clingers” and “deplorables.” Their religion and patriotism are routinely mocked, as are their cultural values on abortion and guns. Their views on constitutional government are ridiculed as both ahistorical and outdated. They are routinely labeled as racists, sexists, Nazis, homophobes, and so on. Worst of all, they are increasingly compared to those that they fought and are seen as a growing terror threat.

Bear Any Burden: Military Sacrifice and Rise of American Populism – Antiwar.com

It appears that America’s martial caste is now discouraging its sons and daughters from enlisting, draining the U.S. military’s strongest enlistment pool. Now, the smart set, on both the right and left, is floating the idea of bringing back the draft, often invoking World War II nostalgia, framing conscription as a form of “democracy.”

It should go without saying that the United States is not the same place that it was in 1940. Reinstating the draft would create more problems than it would solve. There is, of course, another less draconian solution to the question of who shall bear the burden of America’s future, one rarely floated by the smart set: lighten the load.

Lower the demand by bringing our troops home, make America’s “allies” pay for their own defense, and return to the republic we’re supposed to be. It’s a novel and perhaps impossible idea, but one worth clinging to lest we resign ourselves to future generations buckling under this imperious burden.

  1. Steven Manson, Jonathan Schroeder, David Van Riper, Katherine Knowles, Tracy Kugler, Finn Roberts, and Steven Ruggles. IPUMS National Historical Geographic Information System: Version 18.0 [1915-1941 Vital Statistics: Natality & Mortality Data [States & Counties]]. Minneapolis, MN: IPUMS. 2023. http://doi.org/10.18128/D050.V18.0 ↩︎
  2. I used this cut-off for World War II in order to account for the likelihood that naval losses would have put a given country over the threshold of meeting the national average. ↩︎
  3. That number is likely inflated by an error in the DCAS dataset, one that did not record deaths for New York County. I suspect that residents of New York County were recorded as residing in Kings County, hence the elevated number. ↩︎

Honesty in Advertising: “To be killed in action.”

The recent drip of think pieces regarding the resurrection of conscription inspired me to revisit the antiwar ads featured below.

They are some haunting stuff designed to tug at the heartstrings. I first ran into them while researching at the Hoover Presidential Library, specifically while pouring through the Senator Gerald Nye Papers. As you can see, the images feature a mother tossing their smiling child with the text “To be Killed in Action” superimposed above.

The center image and the one on the right are posters/flyers related to a speaking tour put on by Senator Gerald Nye in order to sell the public on the newly proposed Neutrality Act, itself the result of his famed “Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry,” colloquially known as the Nye Committee.

The Nye speaking tour poster and flyer make explicit and repeated references to the Great War as a mistake, one not to be repeated. Lost in the “Good War,” mythologizing the once apolitical and visceral opposition to the war in the United States in the wake of World War I, sentiments that carried through in Congress.

I’ve looked into the ad’s origins and cannot pin it down for certain, although it appears that it at least ran in Esquire magazine. 

I have not found anything on the ad’s origins except for one other appearance on a vintage ad blog that places its origins in 1939, which can’t be correct as the copies I ran into have it at least as early as 1935. According to said blog:

The ad from a group called World Peaceways, in NYC is from 1939 before America entered WWII is remarkable in the fact that it ran as a full-page advertisement in an issue of  “Woman’s Home Companion,” a mainstream woman’s magazine. It appeared alongside recipes for the 1930’s housewife for husband pleasin’ meals and advise on hanging dainty curtains. The contrasts between the usual vintage advertising to women and a daring war protest ad was startling.

War, What is it Good For? | Envisioning The American Dream

If you’ve come this far, read the ads; they’re jarring historical documents. And even if you possess a completely orthodox view of “isolationism” and America’s entry into the war, I hope you can glean a modicum of sympathy for those who desired to stay out of Europe’s growing travails. Most simply didn’t want their children to die half a world away.

Is that so hard to comprehend?

Three Degrees of Extremism: How Adjacency is Manufactured and Used in American Politics

While researching chapter four of my dissertation, “Partisans of the Old Republic,” I stumbled upon a speech given by Representative Ronald Brooks Cameron (D-CA), entitled Who is Doing the Devil’s Work in American Politics?” on 20 May 1963. In his address, Cameron he lambasted the John Birch Society and its influence on conservative politics. His use of rhetoric, guilt by association, arguments from hypotheticals, and hyperbole is a useful window into the era’s crazed political climate and a useful tool for understanding our own political inanities.

A copy of Cameron’s speech within the Congressional Record can be found on the congress.gov website, and I uploaded a copy here.

The Birchers became a tool of political rhetoric and discipline, one used to limit the Overton Window and rein in the then-growing conservative movement. In a speech on the floor of the House of Representatives, Cameron[i] used the specter of the far-right to assail the John Birch Society and other conservative organizations and individuals within its orbit. Cameron’s speech, “Who is Doing the Devil’s Work in American Politics?” sought to tie the already controversial Birchers to the openly antisemitic Gerald L. K. Smith and his periodical Cross and the Flag. Cameron then used the fear of these two groups to question the legitimacy of the emerging conservative movement, declaring, “[w]e are all aware that democracy is under attack by the radical right.” After warning about the fate of democracy, he prefaced his accusations with a reminder of Robert Welch’s more outlandish claims; among them, President Eisenhower and John Foster Dulles were agents of the international communist conspiracy. Cameron further warned that the members of the society had already “infiltrated” Congress.

As with the America First Committee three decades earlier, Cameron highlighted and amplified the tenuous connection between these two camps of the right and then used the proximity of other conservative figures to the John Birch Society to control the Overton Window. His evidence of such a connection was Smith’s professed affinity for the John Birch Society due to its staunch anti-communism. He quoted Smith as declaring that “[f]ollowers of mine who have access to our literature should attend the John Birch Society meetings in their community.” However, Cameron noted that Smith complained that the society did not center its conspiracism on antisemitism. Cameron quoted Smith as lamenting that the Birchers “not only do not discuss the Jewish issue but once in a while they are tempted to bite a little flesh out of some of us who have dared to discuss the Jewish issue.” 

Despite Welch’s refusal to cross the line of open antisemitism, Cameron nevertheless saw these connections as profoundly troubling. He declared that “[t]hus we have evidence that the parasites of religious and racial prejudice are crawling into bed with the John Birch Society”. He added, “I shudder to think of the hideous offspring of such a mating.”

With the toxicity of the John Birch Society magnified, Cameron warned that society continued to use its influence to shape policy and governance. Cameron’s target of choice was the Americans for Constitutional Action (ACA) and their access to members of Congress. He asserted that half of the ACA leadership were members of the John Birch Society and that the ACA maintained numerous other financial connections with the society. He stated that the ACA attached itself “like a political leech” to Congress and could “transfer the image of respectable conservatism to radical rightwing extremism.” Throughout the rest of his speech, he called out the identities of alleged Birchers, including several prominent Old Right noninterventionists and members of the Citizen’s Foreign Aid Committee (CFAC). Among the names mentioned by Cameron were the “enthusiastic Bircher,” former congressman Howard Buffet and CFAC member General Bonner Fellers. He also noted that the ACA distributed materials from the “reactionary” Dan Smoot. 

To cap off his speech, Cameron invoked the recent history of Europe’s experiences with totalitarianism. He warned that while the danger of such organizations was minimal during regular times, he caveated this by asserting Americans were enduring an environment perilously close to those which ushered in communism and Nazism. For him, the Cold War constituted “a crisis” that could empower those with “extremist panaceas [to] become a real threat to democracy.” While Cameron did not explicitly claim that groups like the John Birch Society were plotting a fascist takeover of the U.S., his speech did much to connect their” extremism” and the eventual destruction of the American way of life. 

Cameron’s speech was proliferated by the Associated Press and republished in local newspapers in his home state of California and throughout the country. The speech was also reprinted via the Congressional Printing office and distributed by Birch-watchers. A copy of Cameron’s address is located in the papers of Bryan W. Stevens, a noted Birch reporter; it was in Stevens’s papers where I initially encountered the speech. 

Its destination serves as proof of its intent to serve as a means of political propaganda. To be fair, the printed congressional speech was a typical political messaging tactic in the days before the internet, one that the right also engaged in. The scheme often worked one of two ways. First, a political figure would deliver an address, sometimes in conjunction with an outside, nominally independent political organization. Then, said the organization would pay to print copies of the speech (portions of the Congressional Record could not be printed at taxpayer expense). Printed copies would then be circulated through mailing lists, handed out at events, etc. Conversely, political groups would often write ideologically aligned congressional members and ask them to enter a written item into the Congressional Record and then provide the funds to print it. 

Either way, the relationship added a veneer of state authority to a partisan political goal. And such is the case with Cameron’s speech, with its title “Who is Doing the Devil’s Work in American Politics?” emblazoned upon an official government document (see below).

Page one of the printed version of Rep. Cameron’s address. Note the provocative title prominently depicted beneath the authoritative congressional masthead. Source: Stevens, Bryan W. The John Birch Society in California politics, 1966: by Bryan W. Stevens. The Publius Society, c 1966. Political Extremism and
Radicalism, link.gale.com/apps/doc/RAICBF251389805/PLEX?u=viva_gmu&sid=bookmark-PLEX&xid=370d8729&pg=183. Accessed 3 Feb.
2022

And what was the political goal? To use the John Birch Society (JBS) as a bludgeon to be used against the conservative movement writ large. By 1963, the JBS was clearly serving that function for Cold War liberals and progressives. And to be fair, the society and its leader, Robert B. Welch, did not do themselves many favors. From Welch’s insinuation that Eisenhower was a commie, to their generous use of the “communist” label, to some of their more outlandish conspiracist claims, the JBS and Welch gave their detractors plenty of rope to hang themselves with. However, despite these angles of attack, the group’s eccentricities were not enough to make them uniquely toxic.

 Despite the labels applied to them, the Birchers embodied a then-declining bourgeois Americanist social order at odds with the ascending postwar managerial state. The society was considerably more antielite and often antistatist than attacks leveled upon them would otherwise suggest. They similarly embraced a view of economic relations and a conspiratorial view of history that, while in 1963 was considered “extreme,” would have seemed banal or downright ordinary 30 years prior. And thus, as during the First Brown Scare, the JBS’ ideological proximity to other, more objectively and explicitly illiberal or antisemitic organizations was used by their opponents to achieve their political ends. The group’s real and imagined proximity to odious actors like Gerald L. K. Smith became essential for the political attacks against them. Despite the admitted distance between Smith and Welch, their shared anti-elitism and the occasional rightward drift of some former Birchers was enough to rope the two groups together.

In this formulation, we see one example of a common adjacency attack meant to shrink the political coalition of one’s political opponents. In 1963, Smith and his publication had no political clout. However, the Birchers did. Therefore, Smith and co. became the ammunition used to make the JBS even more radioactive than they were on their own. Once completed, the society was then used as a weapon against other political targets further inside the Overton Window. Conservative power brokers like William F. Buckley then furthered the process along and exiled the society and, as a result, aided liberals in moving the Overton Window ever leftward (see my crude graphic below).

This graphic depicts the relationship between different ideological parties as it relates to an outside political force and their attempts to control the political discourse of their opponents. The “weapon,” in this case, the John Birch Society, stood astride the rightward edge of the Overton Window. Their opponents used their proximity, real and exaggerated, to make them a radioactive bludgeon, which could then be used to discipline “the Target,” the rest of the political right.

This three-degree tactic is, of course, not limited to the left. The right, for a time during the McCarthy era, used the same approach to varying degrees of success, and indeed even the Birchers themselves tried to do the same to their opponents. The difference, however, is that after the inglorious end to the career of Tail gunner Joe, McCarthyite became a slur; no such pejorative exists to describe the reverse. “Cameronite” isn’t a thing.

And it isn’t a thing because the Birchers and other targets of the Second Brown Scare are not traditionally treated as sympathetic characters due to their opposition to key components of the modern liberal program, chiefly Civil Rights. Despite a brief period of nuance in the 1990s and early 2000s, the historiography of these events has reverted back to a narrative largely resembling that of Cameron’s speech. The double whammy of Brexit and Trump has provided incentives to justify current moral and political panics but resuscitate those of yesteryear.

  [i] According to the data analysis I have conducted for this project, Rep Cameron’s opposition rate to U.S. foreign policy during his four-year congressional career (1963-1967) was a mere 7%, a statistic of note given Cameron’s politics and political targets.

When “Isolationism” Won: The Other World War and the Ascent of Dissent

The following is a chapter that I was forced to cut from my dissertation projection, “Partisans of the Old Republic: Rightwing Opposition to U.S. Foreign Policy.”

Writing long-form pieces like a dissertation can force one to make painful editorial decisions. Due to demands on my time and brevity, I needed to conflate much of the following into an earlier chapter. Rather than leave this work to languish in the recesses of my computer, I decided to post it here on my blog.

The essay argues that American involvement in, the conduct of, and the end of the Great War led to the Republican Party developing a synthesized foreign policy worldview that drew elements from its two sectional wings, a compromised position that informed American foreign policy during the interwar period.

For those well-versed in the history of American involvement in World War I, the following may not prove revelatory. However, for the uninitiated, the following will provide a helpful primer on American entry into the war and the backlash that it created. I believe that firmly rooting the history of “isolationism” in American involvement in World War I (if not earlier) is essential to understanding Americans’ traditional reluctance to participate in overseas conflicts and commitments.

On 25 January 1928, Theodore Burton, a Republican Representative from Ohio, introduced House Joint Resolution 183, “To prohibit the exportation of arms, munitions, or implements of war to belligerent nations.” The seasoned politician was a vocal critic of U.S. foreign policy. Like most Republicans of his generation and region, Burton came to oppose American interventionism by living through the Spanish-American War, engaging in debates about American naval power, and witnessing the catastrophic Great War. He opposed the U.S. government’s occupation of the Philippines, challenged the need for a large global navy, and served as the president of the American Peace Society towards the end of his life. In response to the horrors of World War I, Burton introduced legislation to bar “the exportation of arms, munitions, or implements of war to any nation which is engaged in war with another.” Unbeknownst to Burton, who died in 1929, the resolution would be the basis for what became colloquially known as the Neutrality Act. The act, which served to constrain the president’s authority to act in international crises, served as the crescendo of American noninterventionism. The passage of Burton’s legislation, a bill that outlived its creator, was also a testament to the rising popularity and continuity of a spirit of American noninterventionism born during America’s ascent to global power.

The Neutrality Act passed Congress via voice vote in the House and the Senate by a decisive, bipartisan vote of 72-9. It was signed into law by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on 31 August 1935. Directly informed by America’s entry into the Great War, the law placed a general embargo on all munitions exports to belligerents engaged in war and warned Americans that those who traveled upon warring vessels did so at their peril. The law and its decisive passage represented the zenith of American noninterventionism. Its bipartisan and national endorsement also characterized the success of what was a previously predominately Midwestern and largely partisan Republican position on American intervention in global affairs.    

This essay will argue that American entry into, prosecution, and conclusion of the Great War created an amalgamated foreign policy vision for the Republican Party that took aspects from the party’s two sections that determined American foreign policy during the interwar period. At the beginning of the war, the sectional differences within the GOP remained, with Midwesterners predominately opposing American involvement in the conflict and Old Guard members supporting entry. However, the excesses of the war on the home front forced these two sections together, as both found reason to oppose the Wilson administration’s prosecution of the war. Similarly, their shared opposition to the League of Nations over the issue of American sovereignty created an intraparty détente that killed the treaty and helped to usher in the defeat of Wilsonianism and the triumph of the Republican Party in the interwar period.

The restored Republican Party would guide American foreign policy according to impulses taken from each of its sections. Learning from the horror of the Great War, they sought to keep European politics at arm’s length. The Republican administrations of Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover guided American Pacific policy by attempting to fuse the Old Guard’s desire for market access with the Midwest’s desire for demilitarization and political disentanglement. Lastly, on Latin American issues, Republican political ascendency mirrored the paradigms of the pre-Great War era, with a policy of economic dominance interspersed with military intervention. Yet, even here, Midwestern Republicans, backed by an interwar zeitgeist of antimilitarism, eventually forced the Hoover administration to moderate long-standing American policies in Latin America. This ascendant attitude of antimilitarism and noninterventionism outlived the dominance of the Republican Party. The Great Depression amplified these critiques, a process that culminated in the signing of the Neutrality Act.

Both the Old Guard and the Midwestern progressive wing of the party responded to the war and President Woodrow Wilson’s prosecution and proposed postwar settlement in ways that would define American foreign policy of the interwar period. It informed the foreign policy views in the forthcoming ‘Old Right’ and their opposition to American entry into World War II and early Cold War policy.

Historians of American foreign policy and noninterventionism often confine their work to WWII and treat World War I, and the resistance it garnered as an abbreviated preface. These scholars also often argue that noninterventionism in the interwar period, particularly its sizeable Midwestern component, was primarily motivated by the section’s large German population and latent affinity for their homeland in the Old World.[i] Scholars and journalists, therefore, typically work their way backward, explaining the advent of noninterventionism as a near-term reaction to the horrors of the Great War.[ii] Lastly, an immediate postwar interpretation, one which has regained popularity in recent years, places xenophobia and antisemitism as central motivations for American opposition to entry into World War II.[iii] Instead, this essay will show that the Great War and its aftermath were a conduit for existing noninterventionist critiques, a mechanism that made them politically and intellectually palatable at a national scale. The overseas and domestic horror of the Great War mainstreamed existing discourse on executive authority and conspiracism, the particularity of American republicanism, antimilitarism, sovereignty, Anglophobia, and the wickedness of the Old World.

Debates about US entry into World War I solidified the trends unleashed by the late 19th century, ultimately bringing them to the national fore. As with domestic opposition to the Spanish-American war, opponents of American entry into the Great War were a heterogenous movement. Opposition to the war motivated people from all sections of the county and all corners of political life. Antiwar activism and antimilitarism found support amongst the ranks of labor and capital, suffragists and antisuffragists, “old stock” and immigrants, cosmopolitans and particularists, and people of all religions, ethnic and racial groups.[iv]

However, among the war’s dissenters, the largest coherent political bloc was that of the Republican Midwest. As with their earlier criticism of American military buildup, Midwestern opponents to the war were often motivated by their suspicions of what they deemed a self-interested Atlanticist Eastern elite class that believed British interests were more important than tending to American business at home. Earlier class and regional divides Anglophobia entrenched as the U.S. became more involved in Europe’s Great War. The nature of America’s entry into, execution, and resolution of the Great War exacerbated the Midwest’s sectional tendencies. The war brought new noninterventionists into the fold and made noninterventionism a national norm as the two halves of the Republican Party reconciled their differences to defeat the League of Nations and resumed their electoral dominance after the 1918 and 1920 elections.

Early American policy towards the Great War held that of strict neutrality. Upon the start of the war in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson’s earliest public statements were for Americans to be “neutral in fact, as well as name.”[v] Wilson was keenly aware of the divided nature of American public opinion. He came to occupy the oval office via a contentious 1912 presidential election that saw the GOP ticket split between its conservative standard bearer Taft and former President and Bull-Moose Party candidate Theodore Roosevelt and an active campaign of Socialist Party Eugene V. Debs. The split GOP ticket allowed Wilson to secure a sizeable electoral win despite winning only 40% of the popular vote. His party endured rough midterm elections in 1914, and as late as the 1916 presidential campaign, Wilson preferred to focus on domestic issues. His surrogates championed the incumbent as putting “America first” and as possessing the leadership that “kept us out of war,” [vi] and went so far as to claim a Republican victory would mean be sucked “into the embroilments of the European war.”[vii] Wilson secured his 1916 reelection victory, albeit it on carrying California by a mere 3,773 votes.

Privately, however, President Wilson’s sympathies lay with the Allies and especially the British. Throughout his early life, Wilson showed a great appreciation for England’s parliamentary system and Europe’s progressive politics[viii] and had direct familial ties to the British Isles, as his mother hailed from the town of Carlisle in Northern England.[ix] Wilson’s cabinet and inner circle were also staffed with those who held Allied sympathies. Among them was his chief (and non-appointed) advisor, Colonel William House. House similarly viewed the British with affection and privately advocated for supporting the Allied cause while the White House took an official stance of neutrality.

Segments of the Republican Party paralleled the White House’s support for the Allies. Northern members of the party, particularly those with nationalist tendencies, like former President Teddy Roosevelt, considered the war an opportunity. He viewed the conflict in Europe as an avenue for masculine renewal, a means of hardening the nation’s men, made flabby by decades of industrialization.[x] Like their views on the Spanish-American War, these Roosevelt Republicans saw the war as a means of solidifying America’s economic and social growth and a mechanism for the U.S. to take its “rightful” place in the world. The former president and those in his circle believed that American entry would further the quest for national greatness, an international form of manifest density. Whether it was on the issue of national preparedness, or entry into the war, the aging Rough Rider never missed an opportunity to skewer the sitting Democratic president. His passion for the war played well for the Northern portion of his traditional base but alienated his more progressive or populist Midwestern supporters.[xi]

Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge mirrored many of Roosevelt’s views of the war and the prospect of American entry into it. Like Roosevelt, Lodge, the child of a prominent Boston family, believed in an assertive American foreign policy beyond the parameters of the Western hemisphere. And, like Roosevelt, he loathed Wilson’s seeming hesitancy to embrace the moment and believed in the utility and righteousness of American leadership and, at times, unilateralism.[xii] However, unlike the bold and progressive Roosevelt, Lodge was a shrewd political figure closer to the conservative wing of the GOP. Rather than seeing the war as a means to bring the GOP together, as Roosevelt vainly attempted, Lodge understood he could use the conflict to embarrass Wilson and the Democrats while finally purging his party of progressive antimilitarists and antiimperialists.[xiii]

Lodge’s views on American power overseas were, however, complicated. While he was a vocal supporter of American entry into the war, his position was animated by his long-established unilateralism and exceptionalism. Unlike Anglophiles in the liberal and progressive camps, Lodge’s views of Europe were closer to that of his populist, Midwestern colleagues. For him and other Republican unilateralists, America should fight in Europe not to join it but to redeem it.[xiv]  Lodge’s public positions and voting records on executive power, if only because of partisan acrimony and personal disdain for President Wilson, also put him slightly within the noninterventionist camp. Similarly, as we will see, his crucial role in the postwar settlement provided noninterventionism the means to prevail after the war.[xv]

One of Lodge’s Midwestern opponents within his party was Wisconsin Senator Robert “Fighting Bob” La Follette. La Follette was the patriarch of a progressive political family that blended a populist view of American domestic politics with that of noninterventionism. A persistent irritant to the Republican Party’s Old Guard, La Follette supported enacting child labor laws, using federal power to break up trusts, and progressive taxation. Midwestern sectional politics informed his views on domestic issues, which saw the Northeast as pursuing a foreign policy for its benefit. La Follette believed that American entry into the war, either as a pseudo-belligerent or official member of the Allies, would profit American capital and industry at the expense of the median American. La Follette was joined in his dissent in Congress by a cadre of fellow Midwestern Republicans, like Nebraskan George Norris, and a smattering of Southern Democrats, such as House majority leader Claude Kitchin.[xvi]

The battle between Lodge and LaFollette paralleled similar rifts within America’s larger progressive movement. Like the Republican Party, arguments over the war split progressives. The divergence endured in the progressive movement foreshadowed the divides of the following world war and helped set the stage for political realignment that birthed the Old Right. American progressives approached the war over debates about whether it would serve national interests at the expense of public interests.[xvii]

Central to this progressive divide over the war was a debate about whether it would serve as positive means of furthering the growth of a managed economy or as a negative force for the curtailment of civil liberties and social justice. Progressive supporters of the war viewed it as a means to implement a permanently managed economy, a welcomed alternative to the turmoil of industrialized, free-market economics. In the progressive antiwar camp, were who believed that war would be detrimental to the cause of social justice and would empower capital and the centralized state at the expense of the individual. Such figures included reformer, social activist Jane Addams, and New Republic writer Randolph Bourne. Progressive and other left-wing war opponents also had significant portions of America’s unions in their camp, such as the rank and file of the American Federal of Labor (AFL) and especially the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW).

In the pro-intervention camp were key progressive figures like Professor John Dewey, who asserted that the war could make the world safe from German militarism and shepherd the American political economy towards a fairer, less individualistic, managed state.[xviii] Another such progressive war supporter was journalist Walter Lippmann. Lippman was one of the founding editors of the New Republic, a progressive magazine that declared itself dedicated to “a liberalism centered in humanitarian and moral passion, and one based in an ethos of scientific analysis.”[xix] Lippmann, like Dewey, saw the war and America’s entry into it as an opportunity to remake the global order and awaken Americans from what he viewed as its apathy towards international relations. He often framed and wrote about the war in nearly messianic terms as a part of a global struggle. Writing in the New Republic in 1917, he opined that out “of this horror,” the Allies could create “nothing less than a Federation of the World.”[xx]

Another prominent prowar progressive who would go on to impact the ascent of the Old Right was historian Charles Beard. By 1914, Beard was a long-established academic historian with popular appeal. A Midwesterner by birth, Beard defied regional trends through his academic training at Oxford, becoming an anglophile. At the start of the Great War, Beard was among the progressives who supported US entry into the conflict.[xxi] Mirroring the sentiments of his educational class and anglophilia, Beard advocated for American support to the Allies and American entry into the war. Beard believed confronting the Central Powers could quash a pernicious “Prussian militarism” and lead to a more democratic Europe.[xxii]

The mechanics of American entry into the war drew on much of America’s prewar populism, anglophobia, and sectional politics. Opponents of American entry pointed to the extension of American private capital to Allied debtors, the selling of American arms and supplies to the Allies, and the physical transport of said materials across the Atlantic. All three issues opened debates about the limits of American neutrality. While the federal government officially took no side, private firms sold arms, munitions, food, and raw materials to all parties in the conflict. However, a British blockade of German imports and a general affinity for Great Britain and France tilted American support for the Triple Entente.[xxiii] Woodrow Wilson’s Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, attempted to keep America out of the war and truly neutral. The prairie populist was able, for a time, to persuade private banks to abstain from lending money to belligerent nations.[xxiv] Nevertheless, by the summer of 1915, Secretary Bryan felt that American economic and sympathetic ties were drawing the country close to the Allied orbit and into the war. The old hand of the Democratic Party resigned in protest.

By the time of Bryan’s resignation, the United States was a de facto member of the Entente powers, supplying them with munitions and critical lifelines of capital. Despite both warring parties engaging in different forms of naval blockade, the British on the surface, and the Germans below, Washington backed down on protesting the former. Regardless of the alleged illegality of the British blockading neutral shipping, the superiority of the British fleet, and the latent Anglophilia within Wilson’s administration, meant few American claims on its neutrality rights visa vie the British. In a common journalistic quip of the time, “Britain rules the waves and waives the rules.”[xxv]

From the summer of 1915 until 1917, the United States government took incremental steps towards active entry into the war. The mechanisms for this incrementalism were issuing credit and shipments of military supplies to Europe. U.S. banks, like those of American financial magnate and anglophile J.P. Morgan. Morgan’s banking house provided a vital credit lifeline to Great Britain, who hung by a fiscal thread, and France, who by 1916 was effectively broke.[xxvi] Similarly, American industry came to rescue the Entente long before official American entry into the war. U.S. armament manufacturers produced the arms, ammunition, and supplies that kept the Allied armies equipped and combat-ready. By 1916, American industry supplied the Allies with 40% of their war material.[xxvii] The United States, while officially neutral, was an unofficial backer of the Allied side and benefited significantly in the process. In the wake of the Great War, these capital transfers and armaments would fuel the critiques of the noninterventionists.

American supply of arms and munitions and the passage of American citizens on belligerent vessels came into conflict with the German Empire’s use of unrestricted submarine warfare. It was the official policy of the Wilson administration that Americans had a right to travel on belligerent ships free from wartime violence.[xxviii] Such a right was fought in Congress by both Midwestern Republicans and a handful of dissenting Southern Democrats. In the House, Republican minority leader James R. Mann snapped that the U.S. was being maneuvered into war by Americans who went for a “joy ride.”[xxix] Robert La Follette fought to introduce legislation in the Senate to ban Americans traveling in war zones on belligerent ships. Such legislation failed on the Hill as the White House’s influence on the Democratic majority was enough to shelve these efforts.[xxx] A similar issue arose with the issue of arming merchant vessels. Once again, Robert La Follette led the effort to prevent the escalation of American involvement by filibustering legislation allowing merchant vessels to transverse the Atlantic while armed. To quote President Wilson, La Follette and his “little group of willful men” held up armed merchant vessel legislation until the President made the issue moot by circumventing Congress via executive order.[xxxi] The President’s willingness to evade Congress with the power of the pen fueled antiwar dissents that saw it as proof of Wilson’s descent into dictatorship.

The issue of German U-boat action was defused for a time after the outage of the sinking of the Lusitania. After recognizing its naval shortcomings, German leadership renounced its use of unrestricted submarine warfare in May 1915.[xxxii]However, as Europe’s battlefield stalemate slogged on, coupled with the worsening effects of the British blockade, in January 1917, German leadership reversed itself and announced that it resumed its U-Boat campaign. German officials reasoned that since American the government was, in effect, a pseudo-belligerent, risking their active involvement in the war was an acceptable tradeoff for the chance of disrupting the arms and munitions flow to the Allies.[xxxiii] The German resumption of their naval campaigns, coupled with the interception of the Zimmermann Telegram, boosted public support for the Allies and provided the casus belli for American entry into the conflict. [xxxiv]  

Even as official American entry laid a mere vote away, a sizeable number of holdouts remained within Congress. In his dissent, Senator La Follette remained unmoved in his positions and attacked the high-minded rhetoric of President Wilson. “Fighting Bob” assaulted the hypocrisy of the Allied powers, especially Great Britain. He called the British blockade an inhumane tool that starved the old, the young, and the sick. La Follette argued that to enter the war was to “endorse the violations of international law by Great Britain” and its “shameful methods of warfare.”[xxxv] Again, La Follette assailed Wilson’s democratic rhetoric by claiming that the Allies were no paragons of democracy. He again aimed at Great Britain and contended that to enter the war would mean allying with a government headed by “a hereditary monarchy, with a hereditary ruler, [and] with a hereditary House of Lords.”[xxxvi] He further dismissed the notion that the United States had conducted itself as a true neutral power, having only sought to enforce its neutral rights against Germany and accepting the implementation of Great Britain’s blockade.

La Follette also argued against entering the war on domestic grounds. He asserted that it would cost the ordinary person the benefit of the elite. He foresaw the war imposing financial hardship upon the median American in higher taxes and prices. Such fiscal hardship would support the elite’s bottom line, as the median American’s tax dollars that would “pay the interest on the nontaxable bonds held by Morgan and his combinations.”[xxxvii] Representative Ernest Lundeen (R-MN) echoed such sentiments in the House. In a foreshadowing of the national mood to come, he blamed the banking and arms industries for creating and profiting from the war. He provocatively declared that “munition makers desire to make more munitions, to deliver them and receive their money in return at high war prices” and added that “[o]ur financiers desire that Uncle Sam underwrite these and other huge loans and fight to defend their financial interests.”[xxxviii]

Other dissenters argued that entering the war would upset the nation’s governing status quo. Rep. Harry Hull (R-IA) registered his dissent as stemming from localist politics that centered the needs of the median American over the lofty goals appended the war. He asserted that he felt his opposition was in keeping with the opinion of the average American resident of his district. Like Lundeen, Hull noted the common person would bear the brunt of the war and lamented at the prospect of sacrificing “the flower of American manhood to swell the fleshpots of the few.” Additionally, he rejected the high-minded internationalism or knee-jerk militaristic rationales for going to war. Instead, Hull asserted that “the test of loyalty is not the answer to the bugle call, but is rather in the exercise of that calm, impassive judgment that will bring health, happiness, and honor to your home, your community, your State, and your country.”[xxxix]

Fear that the war would permanently disfigure the country ran throughout dissenting bodies in Congress. William Mason, the veteran Republican antiimperialist from Ohio, now in the House of Representatives, again opposed the prospect of Americans fighting a foreign war. As he had 18 years prior, Mason asserted that entry into the war would deface the republic. “The danger of entering into war […] means an entrance on our part into European war and European politics, the dangers of which were foreshadowed by Washington and are familiar to every student of the history of the United States.”[xl] The fear of a disfigured republic was a bipartisan one. In his objection to the declaration, Democratic Senator from Missouri William J. Stone stated, “I won’t vote for this war because if we go into it, we will never again have the same old Republic.”[xli]

Despite these pleas against the declaration, the declaration passed more comfortably than the passions involved would have indicated. A noticeable pocket of Democratic opposition to the war, particularly in the South and West, shrank as Wilson was able to keep most of the party in line.[xlii] The pressure to vote for the war fell some antiwar Republicans from the party’s progressive wing. Even Senator Borah, once elected on an anti-imperialism platform, relented. Commenting on his support, Borah asserted that the vote did not signify an act of aggression but rather “a war for the defense of American rights and the American people.”[xliii] despite these pressures, six Senators voted against the declaration of war against the German Empire in 1917, three Republicans (all Midwesterners) and three Democrats. In the House, 32 Republicans and 16 Democrats opposed the measure. All 32 Republicans represented districts in the Midwest, Rockies, or the west coast. None of the nay votes in Congress from either major party originated from the country’s Northern states.[xliv]

With American entry into the conflict secured, debate in Congress centered on the means of waging the American war effort, and a heated debate around conscription began in earnest. Although the federal government successfully implemented its first mass draft during World War I, it found resistance across the political spectrum from both major parties and throughout the Midwest, West, and South. Even the Democratic House Majority Leader, Claude Kitchin of North Carolina, defied the president. Opposition to the draft was so strident that even for congressmen who supported entry into the war, conscription was too similar to the compulsory service regimes of the Old World, particularly that of the German empire.[xlv] One dissenter on the measure was Democratic Congressman Charles H. Brand of Georgia. Rep. Brand, who had voted for the war resolution, opposed conscription on moral and ideological grounds. He asserted his belief that implementing nationalized conscription would lead to establishing a large, standing army, long the bane of America’s idealized Jeffersonian tradition. “We should be careful lest in attempting to destroy militarism and autocracy abroad we will do those things which will have a tendency to destroy democracy at home,” he remarked in his dissent.[xlvi]

Brand also believed that establishing a large standing army would erase each state’s particularity and facilitate the creation of mass society, the same sort of society that had fueled the Old World’s descent into total war. Undergirding Brand’s commentary was another reason for opposing the draft, which particularly animated the Solid South, the fear of black violence subsidized by the federal government. One Democratic politician who was not shy of making his opposition explicit was Mississippi Senator James K. Vardman, who groused that conscription would enable “arrogant strutting representatives of the black soldiery in every community.”[xlvii] Southern resistance to the sinews of American imperial power in 1917, as with their opposition to the occupation of the Philippines, was often animated by a desire to maintain white republican rule. The prospect of black soldiers, like Filipino labor, threatened to undermine the established racial order.

Race and republicanism overlapped with fears that the draft would create a permanent martial caste, similar to that of the fear of German Junkers, the alleged seedbed for German militarism. Congressional opponents to the draft believed that, if enacted, it would fundamentally transform American society and turn it into an imitation of what it was mobilizing to fight, a martial society. Brand remarked that the conscription bill, as proposed, exempted government officers. According to Brand, these officials would enjoy the fruits of “life, liberty, and freedom” while deciding “who shall go to war and who shall remain at home.”[xlviii]

Brand’s fellow opponents shared echoed sentiments. One such dissenter was Rep. Ernest Lundeen (R-MN), who opposed conscription as fervently as he did American entry into the war. Like Brand, Lundeen asserted that the draft was undemocratic, as it left Congress untouched. According to Lundeen, this disparity in sacrifice undermined the lofty ideals for which the U.S. was to enter the war and undermined the difference between America and its Old-World adversaries. A veteran of the Spanish-American War, Lundeen mockingly declared that “I volunteer here and now to lead an untrained but war-like and war-voting company of volunteer Congressmen into the trenches of Europe” and added, when “you vote for war, send your name to Uncle Sam as a volunteer.”[xlix] While the conscription passed into law, every section of the country registered some level of dissent in the House of Representatives, with the highest levels of opposition stemming from the Midwestern and Western states.[l]

Public opposition to the draft paralleled those in Congress, and the federal government had a plan to curtail it, the Sedition Act.[li] Passed shortly after conscription, the Sedition Act amended the earlier Espionage Act. Despite not containing the direct free speech abridgments Wilson desired, the Sedition Act effectively illegalized dissent directed at the federal government and its prosecution of the war. Provisions of the act made it a felony to incite disloyalty within the U.S. military, use written or verbal language which was disloyal to the U.S. government, advocate strikes related to war industries, or “by word or act enemy support or favor the cause of any country with which, the United States is at war or by word or act oppose the cause of the United States.”[lii] The act afforded federal and state authorities, often supported by vigilante groups, the means to quash antiwar dissenters long before American troops entered the fray on the Western Front.[liii]

The federal government used the act as a pretext for cracking down on left-leaning unions, particularly the International Workers of the World (IWW). The use of federal authority, often coupled with vigilantism, was used to discipline the antiwar wing of the labor movement, which resulted in numerous cases of street violence[liv] and, in the case of union leader Frank Little, murder by lynching.[lv] While the Wilson administration attempted and failed to prove that the I.W.W. was in the pocket of the German empire, the broad proscripts of the Sedition Act provided the means to suppress the organization. And, on 28 September 1918, 166 members of the union were federally indicted to, in the words of one prosecutor, “put the I.W.W. out of business.”[lvi] The Sedition Act provided the federal government the means of waging the final battle of the American labor wars as it geared up to wage war in Europe.

The Sedition Act was enforced by a culture of war fever, largely stewed by the federal government. Upon entering the Great War, the Wilson administration desired to shape public opinion on war by proliferating its official line on the war, that it was an endeavor in self-defense brought on by the “sinister power” of German militarism.[lvii] Wilson created the Committee for Public Information (CPI) via executive order to achieve this end and appointed his progressive political ally and former investigative journalist George Creel as its head. Creel’s organization proliferated pro-Allied and xenophobic anti-German messaging through its press releases, the covert subsidizing of newspapers, public speakers, and even church sermons. The CPI presented a picture of the war which demonized “the Hun” abroad and war resisters at home. The CPI also pressured American media to censor their content and coordinated with other government agencies, including the Postal Service, to restrict dissident content.[lviii] In addition to boosting the U.S. government’s position on the war, the CPI inflated the domestic threat of German agents, framed calls for a negotiated peace as “spy talk,” and coerced newspaper editors who considered running articles critical of the war.[lix]

Unbeknownst to the American public, Creel’s efforts with the CPI were paralleled by a similar campaign waged by the British government. Even before the United States formally entered the war, British intelligence worked to move American public opinion towards the Triple Entente. British agents amplified accusations of German war crimes in Belgium to elicit American sympathies for the Allies.[lx] Not content to merely draw Americans towards Great Britain, their agents, through contacts with local police and journalists, sought to drive a wedge between the United States and Germany. Before American entry into the conflict, British agents amplified the presence of German agents and sympathizers within the United States while minimizing the visibility of their own intelligence activities.[lxi]

The Sedition Act and British and American propaganda cultivated a wartime culture of anti-German sentiment and other xenophobic campaigns tied up with the war effort. As with labor, the federal government used its power to prosecute religiously motivated pacifists, many of whom belonged to historical German protestant denominations. Dozens of members of Anabaptist subsects, such as Mennonites and Hutterites, were charged under the auspices of the Espionage Act for refusing to register for the draft or making statements critical of the American war effort.[lxii]

The Sedition Act similarly incentivized intolerant and illiberal attitudes directed at the wider German-American community. Once held up as the prototypical “model minority,” German immigrants and German Americans quickly became viewed as an enemy within.[lxiii] Taking their cues from Washington and Woodrow Wilson’s rhetoric promoting “100% Americanism,” local governments passed various bans on speaking German in public, teaching German in school, and other measures to limit displays of German culture in American society.[lxiv] Private businesses went so far as to engage in the pedantic practice of renaming German cuisine. American towns changed German-sounding street names and, in several cases, entire placenames. And individual German Americans, once proud of their collective contributions to American society, hid their heritages and often changed their surnames.[lxv] Beyond petty assault and intimidation, mob violence on several occasional resulted in the lynching of several German immigrants.[lxvi] America’s orgy of xenophobia and violence during the Great War would inform American noninterventionism upon the end of the war and serve as a living example of what mass war can unleash on the home front.[lxvii]

Due to the downstream effects of the Sedition Act and other government rhetoric on the war, political violence became a norm during America’s involvement in the conflict. Even in the Midwest, a bastion of noninterventionism, prowar vigilantes, taking their informal ques from the White House, intimidated antiwar political figures. One such Midwestern Republican was former Minnesota Representative and Swedish immigrant Charles Lindbergh Sr. The elder Lindbergh, the father to the future famous-turned-infamous aviator and noninterventionist, was an outspoken opponent of American entry into the Great War. Like others of his section, Lindbergh Sr., a progressive Republican and agrarian radical opposed American entry into the war on populist grounds. In his 1917 book, Why Is Your Country at War, he asserted that the “special interests” of Wall Street, the money trust, were the financial interests responsible for inching Americans into war.[lxviii]

Lindbergh Sr.’s rationale and rhetoric mirrored those of his section and presaged that of his more notable and infamous son. “It is impossible according to the big press to be a true American unless you are pro-British” he asserted in his antiwar tome, and added, “[i]f you are really for America first, last, and all the time and solely for American and for the masses primarily, then you are classed as pro-German by the big press which are supported by the speculators.”[lxix] And, like his son, the elder’s noninterventionism was often met with hostility. Their Minnesota home was vandalized, and while on the 1918 Minnesota gubernatorial campaign trail, Lindbergh Sr. was often met by aggressive crowds. At one rally, he was hung in effigy, at another, he was pelted with eggs, and after one speaking engagement, he sped out of town, tailed gunfire, a young Charles A. Lindberg Jr. at the wheel.[lxx]

Violence at home paralleled political dissent from the changes in the American economy brought about by the active entry into the war. These economic grievances coincided with other sources of dissatisfaction that pushed the GOP further into a role as the de facto opposition party on the issue of foreign affairs and then further along the path as the nation’s conservative party. President Wilson’s industrial policy elicited howls from both wings of the GOP. Wilson’s strategies for war mobilization struck a middle path, relying on his strain of progressive ideology that sought to marshal private resources through technocratic planning.[lxxi] Despite the feelings of some of his detractors, Wilson had little appetite for the nationalization of productive industry or for their forced break up. Similarly, due to strident opposition to raising taxes, Wilson sought to buffer America from the costs of the war by relying on inflationary monetary policy rather than direct taxation.[lxxii]  

Wilson’s technocratic middle way pleased none of his detractors and resulted in forcing the two wings of the Republican Party closer together. Midwestern progressives like Senator Robert La Follette desired to avoid inflation and instead sought a graduated tax system to finance the war.[lxxiii] Though the war, for a time, created a boom in agricultural production, the collapse of the demand bubble led to an economic crisis in the heartland that preceded the Great Depression. Economic hard times deepened the existing populist disdain for the North, as Midwestern populists came to blame their financial problems on Eastern banks that artificially drove up demand and ended in a crash.[lxxiv] Upon the war’s conclusion, Midwestern Republicans increasingly viewed the conflict as a means of wealth transfer from the heartland to the coasts, thereby deepening their sectional resentment and noninterventionism.

The effects of inflation dovetailed with the advent of the Farm Bureau. Buttressed by the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, Farm Bureaus were conservative-leaning, business-orientated organizations that sought to aid agricultural concerns through market means. The bureaus eschewed the earlier era of agrarian radicalism and instead sought to compete with outside capital at their own game, market access, and lobbying of government.[lxxv] The advent of the bureaus as a political force for rural Republicans, coupled with the burdens of the war, started the process of the rural Midwest’s political transformation. On the eve of the next world war, the Midwest would become the GOP’s rightwing base, one that adapted its earlier populist worldview on foreign policy to its new conservative politics.

Wilson’s changes in the wartime political economy also angered the GOP’s northern conservatives. The Republican Old Guard, already predisposed to loathe President Wilson and progressivism, similarly opposed the president’s wartime economic policies regardless of its stripe. The growth in the size of technocratic government elicited a partisan backlash from Old Guard Republicans wary of permanent changes to the American economy. Of particular ire for Congressional Republicans was the Department Reorganization Act of 1918, colloquially known as the Overman Act. The act allowed the president to reorganize executive agencies without consulting Congress. In a prelude to future fights between Republicans in Congress and a Democrat in the White House, the former made liberal use of the “dictator” accusation and cast the struggle over wartime policy as one over executive authority of the nature of republican government.[lxxvi]

While congressional Republicans failed to stop the bill, its passage, growing discontent in the grain belt, and excesses on the home front, coupled with normal midterm election dynamics, led to sizable GOP gains in the 1918 congressional elections. While the dynamics of GOP’s intraparty politics did not create a unified political message on the war, such disorganization played to the party’s advantage as Northern Republicans campaigned on Wilson’s alleged weakness overseas and populist Midwestern Republicans assailed his heavy hand on the home front. Republicans with a national platform like Roosevelt and Lodge attacked the President as weak on the war and liable to cave on postwar planning.[lxxvii] Wilson and his surrogates responded with accusations of Republican disloyalty. During a campaign speech in Wisconsin, Vice President Thomas R. Marshall vindictively mirrored the “hyphened American rhetoric” of his boss. He declared Wisconsinites were “half for America, half for the kaiser, and all against Wilson.” He charged the Wisconsin Republican Party of disloyalty and compared the candidates on the state ballot to “sewage.”[lxxviii]

The success of Allied and American forces in Europe did not translate to Democratic electoral victory as Wisconsinites responded by electing the full suite of Republican candidates in November 1918. Wisconsin’s results were part of a Republican victory that secured control of the Senate, albeit by a slim two-seat margin. The GOP also garnered a 24-seat margin in the House. While in historical terms, the 1918 results were typical for a midterm election, they looked like a thrashing when compared to Wilson’s campaign rhetoric and broke his tenuous South-West coalition.[lxxix] The slim victory did not stop Senator Lodge from declaring a rout and placing a moral sheen on the results, claiming that it constituted “a country-wide revolt against dictatorship.”[lxxx] With both chambers secured and the senior body now under the control of Senate Leader Henry Cabot Lodge, the GOP was poised to influence the outcome of the war and postwar policy.[lxxxi]

While Lodge’s electoral success would contribute to his goal of frustrating the White House, it would not suppress the more fervent voices of noninterventionism within his party. Instead, the 1918 elections solidified the place of Midwestern noninterventionism within national politics. Democratic losses were the steepest in the Midwest as farmers groaned under the burden of price controls.[lxxxii] And Wisconsin and Nebraska voters were partly motivated in response to anti-German American animus brought about by the war.[lxxxiii] The GOP gained four Senate seats in the Midwest, flipped one in Colorado, and held their existing seats in all sections west of the Mississippi River. Additionally, 34 Republican House Representatives from the Midwest began their political careers with the 1918 midterms. Key members would survive politically well into the interwar period, solidifying noninterventionist foreign policy thinking within the GOP and the country. More immediately, however, the 1918 election results assured the death of Wilson’s dream, American participation in the League of Nations.

President Woodrow Wilson’s trip to Europe and attendance at the Paris peace conference were supposed to herald a new era of foreign relations that would permanently arouse America from its alleged absence on the global stage. The President’s vision for the postwar world was built on his ambitious 14 points, a program that outlined lasting peace in Europe and a template for a liberal global order. Among them was what became known as the League of Nations, an association of sovereign states designed to maintain territorial integrity and prevent the outbreak of another world war. However, Wilson’s diplomatic successes did not match his ambitions. Wilson’s points managed to be, at times, vague and contradictory. For instance, the President championed a universalized right to self-determination but failed to articulate how that would comport with point tFhree, which called for liberal free trade, or the creation of an independent Polish state with access to the sea, a goal only achievable by incorporating ethnic Germans into the new political territory.[lxxxiv]

Wilson’s postwar plans also ran into a maelstrom of self-interest among the war’s victorious power. His call for free trade on open seas contradicted Britain’s dependence upon naval supremacy to prop up its empire. Similarly, Wilson’s invocation of “peace without victory,” a formulation for the postwar world, rang hollow for victors of the Entente. Great Britain sacrificed over 800,000 souls, with 1.6 million wounded during the war. France lost over 1.1 million soldiers and 40,000 civilian casualties, with over 4 million wounded. Italy, a junior partner and late arrival to the Entente, lost over 480,000 troops and nearly 950,000 wounded. Europe had just herded a generation of its young into the abattoir; peace without victory was inconceivable and politically impossible. Despite America’s years of financial and material support and its own sacrifice in the blood, Wilson was in no position cajole the Allies into accepting his idealistic vision.[lxxxv]

What emerged from Versailles was an amalgamation of Wilsonian idealism and European realism that differed significantly from the promises of “peace without victory.” The League of Nations treaty contained several compromises with Wilson’s proposed vision and provisions that elicited strident opposition within Congress and in pockets of the American public. The treaty imposed crippling reparations penalties upon Germany, and under pressure from French prime minister George Clemenceau, the treaty contained colloquially known as the “war guilt clause” (Article 231). The clause declared that Germany was solely responsible for starting the war, thereby whitewashing the war’s complex origins of imperial competition and secret alliances.[lxxxvi] The treaty also awarded France territories seized by Prussia during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1 and Germany’s coal-rich Saar region, a section of Germany to which the French had no historical claim.

The treaty also made several compromises with Wilsonian idealism on the issue of colonized people. The treaty left untouched the victorious powers’ colonial holdings and did not mention Ireland’s colonial status. Both aspects of the treaty stuck critics as blatant hypocrisies and, in the case of Ireland, created significant opposition within America’s Irish American population, a key Democratic constituency.[lxxxvii] Lastly, on the issue of colonialism, the treaty seized all of German’s overseas possessions as well as a portion of the Ottoman Empire and awarded them to the Allies under the auspices of colonial “mandates.” For long-established American opponents of the war, their ranks of the newly disillusioned, the scheme bore little difference from the victor’s dividing the spoils for further world dominance, rather than “peace without victory,” Wilson ensured a victory without peace.

The outcome of the war and the peace process led many prominent Republicans who had been erstwhile supporters of American intervention to become leading proponents of American retrenchment in foreign affairs. The most strident of these opponents, particularly populist Republicans from the Midwest, was led by “the Great Opposer,” Republican Senator from Idaho William Borah. While Borah reluctantly voted for American entry into the war, its conclusion and the naked ambitions of the imperial power made him snap back into his previous noninterventionist position with the zeal of a born-again adherent. He and his fellow “Irreconcilables” tapped into a wellspring of populist angst with the war, sentiments amplified by its outcome and strongest held in the Midwest.[lxxxviii] For these opponents, the putative actions against Germany, the land seizures in Europe, and the spoils of transferred colonies made a mockery of Wilson’s declaration that Americans fought for the advancement of democracy.

The Irreconcilables also believed that joining the League would fundamentally corrupt the character of the American Republic. For Borah and his supporters like Senator Poindexter (R-WA), and James Reed (D-MO), the League was a tool of European colonialism. And, since Article 10 made no clear distinction about what constituted a member’s territory, for them, the provision was a European ploy to use American citizens to control their colonial subjects. To the Irreconcilables, this arrangement threatened to transfigure the U.S. into an Old-World imperialist state. During a Senate speech on his opposition to American involvement in the League, Borah asserted that the “virtues of a real republic you can not commingle with the discordant and destructive forces of the Old World and still preserve them.” He added, [y]ou can not yoke a government whose fundamental maxim is that of liberty to a government whose first law is that of force.”[lxxxix] To maintain America’s exceptionalist republican character, Borah and his colleagues vowed to stop the treaty in any form.

While the “Irreconcilables” were often motivated by moral concerns and reinvigorated disdain for Europe, they shared an objection to Article 10 with the party’s Old Guard, a commonality that created the party unity necessary to prevent the ratification of the treaty. For the Irreconcilables of the progressive wing and the “Reservationists” within the Old Guard, the threat to American sovereignty posed by Article 10 provided the overlap needed to prevent ratification.[xc] Lodge, like the Irreconcilables, viewed Article 10 as an impetus to entangle Americans into European conflicts. On the Article, he held that Americans “would not have our country’s vigor exhausted or her moral force abated, by everlasting meddling and muddling in in every quarrel, great and small, which effects the world.”[xci] However, for Lodge and other unilateralists within the Old Guard, their objections to the article stemmed from a foundational desire to maintain American freedom of maneuver in foreign affairs. Lodge, like Roosevelt, was a navalist who viewed American global power as a logical extension of America’s westward expansion.[xcii] For these unilateralists, involvement in the league, as initially proposed, would hamper their ambitions for American global prominence.

Despite these issues, Senator Lodge offered the White House a set of compromises known as the “Lodge Reservations.” Lodge’s list of 14 compromises would have guarded against the sovereignty concerns associated with Article 10. Chief among them would have subjected America’s commitment to collective defense to Congressional approval.[xciii] The president refused to entertain Lodge’s counterproposal and urged Democratic Senators to reject them. The standoff between the Democratic executive and Republican legislative majority dragged on throughout 1919 and caused Lodge and Wilson’s already strident and mutual animosity to fester.[xciv] The League Treaty was defeated in Senate, having failed to achieve the 2/3rd majority needed for ratification.

Undeterred by its defeat in the Senate, Wilson subsequently took to his message to the public in a series of addresses he hoped to create pressure for the treaty’s ratification. He was often shadowed by a self-described Republican “truth-squad” comprised of Senators Borah, Hiram Johnson of California, and Illinois conservative and member of the influential McCormick publishing family, Medill McCormick.[xcv] The pressure of the public relations campaign ultimately cost President Woodrow Wilson’s health, having suffered from a debilitating stroke in October 1919. The president’s poor health and the impasse between him and Lodge condemned the League of Nations treaty to defeat.

The collapse of the League coincided with other sources of popular discontent. Among them were revelations about the scale and influence of British and American propaganda operations throughout the war. Upon the war’s end, the American public learned about these campaigns through a series of self-congratulatory memoirs and postwar investigations. For those already predisposed against American noninvolvement, these revelations amplified their Anglophobia and suspicion of American Atlanticists. These revelations even disturbed former interventionists, combined with the league’s collapse, and created a mood of disenchantment with foreign affairs.[xcvi]

In 1918, Gilbert Parker, a Canadian born, British propagandist, asserted in an essay for Harper’s “the scope of my department was very extensive and its activities widely ranged” and supplied three hundred and sixty newspapers to the smaller States […] we utilized the friendly services and assistance of confidential friends [and] with influential and eminent people of every profession in the United States.”[xcvii] Not to be outdone, in George Creel’s own How We Advertised America, published in 1920, he boasted that the CPI’s efforts “reached deep into every American community” and “was no part of the great war machinery that we did not touch, no medium of appeal that we did not employ.”[xcviii] Creel viewed his charge as necessary, for in his view, “[w]ith the existence of democracy itself at stake, there was no time to think about the details of democracy.”[xcix]

The public and journalistic response to these revelations was one of transpartisan outrage. Media outlets across the political spectrum recoiled at the idea that the American and British governments had sustained efforts to guide public opinion and control dissent. The Nation, an erstwhile progressive supporter of American involvement in the war, came to view the conflict as providing the government with previously “undreamed of ways of fortifying their control over the masses of the people.” The Freeman, a classically liberal magazine, called these efforts “a poison gas attack.”[c] Similar commentary on the propaganda threat emanated from the Christian socialist The World Tomorrow and the liberal The New Republic. From his conservative perch at Saturday Evening Post, Garet Garrett called the propaganda threat “so new and so bewildering that not only has no solution for it been imagined but it has not been adequately defined.”[ci] The fallout from these revelations created a nationwide concern for the effects of propaganda and fed the belief that the British government dupped Americans into entering the war and were subsequently propagandized by their government into supporting it.

Over 100,00 Americans died in the Great War, and over 200,000 were wounded. While minor compared to the bloodletting endured by the European powers, the sacrifice of American lives for European spoils, combined with the inability of the war to meet a Wilsonian conclusion, led many Americans to ask why they entered the war in the first place. And, for many Europeans, the Great War did not end, with numerous internal conflicts and border skirmishes erupting in earnest.[cii] This spectacle of unabated bloodshed only compounded widespread American disillusionment with European politics. As editors from the Los Angeles Times lamented, “[i]t is quite impossible to tell what the war made the world safe for.”[ciii]  This anguish with the war “over there” paralleled anger with the war’s conduct on the home front. Labor strife, ethnic violence and intimidation, religious persecution, civil rights abuses, conscription, mass propaganda, price controls, economic disruptions, inflation, and a dangerous increase in executive authority, led most Americans to conclude that it was time again to keep the benighted Old World at arm’s length and ensure a “return to normalcy.”

The 1920 election served as a de facto referendum on the Wilson presidency, the war, and its domestic implications and would solidify a retrenchment of American power from European affairs. In the interests of playing it safe and keeping its own shaky house in order, the GOP avoided grand or pointed ideological appeals and took a milquetoast stance on entry into the League in its 1920 platform.[civ] Despite the Republicans’ conservative electoral strategy, the Democratic Party added to their unpopularity and sought to make the campaign partly about salvaging the league and American involvement in the war. The Democratic presidential candidate, former Ohio governor, and Congressman James M. Cox, like his predecessor, questioned the loyalty of the opposition party and its voters. On the campaign trail, Cox frequently spoke of “the enemies of America during the war,” the “pro-German party,” and on the eve of the election declared, “[e]very traitor in America will vote tomorrow for Warren G. Harding.”[cv] The following day, a wave of “traitors” turned out for Harding and the Republican ticket.

Republican nominee and former Ohio Senator Warren G. Harding won the presidency in the largest popular vote landslide in a century. His victory was also the most significant two-way electoral college victory since President Ulysses S. Grant’s 1872 reelection.[cvi] Harding garnered over 60% of the popular vote and 404 electoral votes to Cox’s 127, who failed to carry a state outside the South. The Republican Party faired equally well on the Hill. In the Senate, the Republican Party gained ten seats, with the Democrats unable to win a contest outside the South. The party gained 63 seats in the House to complete the most commanding Republican control of the federal government since Reconstruction. In the words of one California Republican, if the election were a boxing match, “the police would interfere on the grounds of brutality.”[cvii] The League of Nations treaty and the excesses of the war’s prosecution on the home front obliterated Wilson’s tenuous South-West alliance, alienated usually reliable urban voters of Italian, German, or Irish stock, and allowed the GOP’s sidestep its sectional issues. An exuberant Senator Henry Cabot Lodge declared, “[w]e have torn up Wilsonianism by its roots.”[cviii] 

The defeat of Wilsonianism and the detente between Republican factions fostered an American foreign policy that amalgamated the world views of the Old Guard and Midwestern progressives. Rather than burying his Midwestern, intraparty opponents, Lodge ended up accommodating their suspicions of overt military power, involvement with European politics, and overseas entanglements.[cix] While by no means “isolated” from international affairs, the American federal government implemented a foreign policy best described as neutrality.[cx] The coalition of Old Guard unilateralists with more stridently noninterventionist Midwestern Republicans created a foreign policy worldview that prioritized independence in political action and was comprised of different regional strategies.

On European affairs, the period of postwar Republican dominance sought strict nonalignment with the Old World and, by extension, their colonies. Upon taking office in 1921, with the momentum of a pivotal election and supported by both chambers of Congress, President Warren G. Harding signed a separate peace with Germany, legislation his predecessor stubbornly vetoed. President Harding also withdrew American occupation troops from postwar Germany, backpedaled on many of Wilson’s overseas commitments, and dismantled much of the domestic bureaucracy erected to run the war effort. Lastly, he plainly declared the League of Nations issue “as dead as slavery.”[cxi] Despite keeping Europe politically at arm’s length, the United States maintained trading and humanitarian relations with Europe. Through his Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, the United States government, through private actors, participated in postwar famine relief. Republican administrations used such international philanthropy as an agricultural subsidy that built goodwill overseas and boosted economic opportunity for American business.[cxii] Despite the transactional nature, these relief efforts fed approximately 10 million people, including those under Bolshevik rule in Russia. Hoover’s relief efforts earned him the moniker of the “Great Humanitarian,” boosted his political profile, and provided a model for future conservative thinking on American involvement in the world.[cxiii] 

In East Asia, sectional tensions within the Republican Party drove the Harding administration to seek a compromised position on American involvement in the Pacific. True to its thinking stretching back to the late 19th century, the Old Guard sought to maintain market access to China. In contrast, the Midwestern cohort held to its ire on the U.S. occupation of the Philippines and the military expenditures that it entailed. To appease both factions while attempting to ameliorate imperial competition in the region, the Harding administration initiated multilateral naval talks outside the confines of the League of Nations. The Washington Naval Conference involved Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Portugal and sought to limit the total tonnages of participants’ naval power. For the Harding administration, limiting its naval expenditures in concert with the conference mollified the Midwestern progressives while also securing market access, which secured the Old Guard’s central foreign policy goal.[cxiv]

The Harding administration hoped to use the arms control agreements to freeze regional imperial competition. While no mean, actively anti-imperial, Harding and his supporters expected to prevent further imperial expansion and thereby allow market forces to reign through the region.[cxv] The treaty was also widely favored by Congress and the larger antiwar movement. Fiscal conservatives and antimilitarists approved of the treaty for their respective reasons, and the broader antiwar movement viewed the agreement as a positive step toward disarmament.[cxvi] Additionally, the willingness of congressional Republicans to limit naval expenditures signaled that skepticism of antimilitarism had taken hold within American politics, even among conservative Republicans. Long the bastion of navalism, even the conservative Old Guard was willing to reduce naval spending and let private commerce do the work of public diplomacy.[cxvii] The treaty left one issue unresolved for antiimperialists within the Republican Party: the occupation of the Philippines .

While the Republicans found intraparty accommodations on broader Asian affairs, they remained divided on the Philippines’ independence. Through the 1920s until the early 1930s, Midwestern Republicans, supported by the bulk of the Democrats, increasingly pushed to grant independence to the Philippines, in contrast to their fellow Northern GOPers who supported maintaining the country as a formal colony. Members of the Old Guard continued to view the islands as a beachhead to greater market access to East Asia. After the successful conclusion of the Washington Naval Conference, a clique of Midwestern Republicans backed the bulk of the Democratic Party and attempted to shoehorn the issue of Philippines independence into the Four Power Treaty. Robert LaFollette opposed the treaty, believing that it solidified the U.S. as a “joint adventurer” in Asian imperialism.[cxviii] He posed a treaty amendment that would have made independence of the archipelago a stated goal of the U.S. government. La Follette’s amendment failed, only garnering three fellow Republican votes, George Norris of Nebraska, Edwin Ladd of North Dakota, and Hiram Johnson of California, all members of the party’s progressive cohort. Twenty-three additional supporting votes from the Democratic Party were insufficient to pass the measure.

Throughout the 1920s, the subject of Filipino independence remained at an impasse within the Republican Party and the federal government writ large. It would not be until the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and the Great Depression that the political will would manifest to jettison the Philippines from the fold.[cxix] The breakdown of imperial detente in the Pacific moved some Republicans to feel letting go of the islands would prevent further political entanglement and the possibility of being dragged into a Pacific war.[cxx] Such concerns paralleled a new wave of agricultural protectionism and longstanding politics of racial and labor exclusion and created the political space to cut the islands loose. With the deepening economic crisis and the threat of Japanese expansion, Democratic Congressman Butler Hare introduced H.R.7233, a bill to put the islands on a path to independence. The measure passed in both chambers of Congress and was again passed, overriding the presidential veto of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The measure enjoyed bipartisan support, and while the GOP was roughly split on the measure, recent economic and geopolitical issues were enough to shift the party towards independence, albeit for less the high-minded reasons offered by the occupation’s principled opponents.

Where the two halves of the GOP found their most significant differences were on U.S. policy in Latin America. While American policy in Asia struggled with the limitations of multilateral agreements, and America’s role in European affairs remained minimal, U.S. policy in Latin America continued economic dominance supported by selective military interventions. Throughout the 1920s, the Republican administrations viewed the Monroe Doctrine as sacrosanct and perceived Latin America as within America’s legitimate sphere of influence, one secured through economic means. However, the means of enforcement for such views remained contingent through the area of Republican pollical ascendancy. During a diplomatic crisis with Mexico, in which the country’s revolutionary government threatened to seize land owned by American oil companies, now President Calvin Coolidge’s ambassador successfully negotiated an end to the crisis and thereby avoided U.S. government intervention.[cxxi] Such was not the case for Nicaragua, where President Coolidge ordered American marines to return in order to back the conservative government led by Adolfo Díaz and to protect American economic interests.

Coolidge’s use of military force in Nicaragua elicited a backlash within Congress, particularly from the congressional veterans of the Irreconcilables and those whose careers began in the wake of the Spanish-American War. Among them was Senator Borah, who, upon the death of Henry Cabot Lodge in 1924, became the chairman of the powerful Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Couched with populist language, Borah had long held a dissenting view on using American force in Latin America. During the Harding administration’s first use of military force, Borah asserted that the “people of Nicaragua are being exploited in shameless fashion by American corporations protected by United States Marines.” Fellow Irreconcilables Robert La Follette and George Norris voiced similar concerns.[cxxii]

Borah’s views on Nicaraguan policy hardened after Coolidge’s redeployment of the Marines and subsequent skirmishes between them and Nicaraguan liberals. As with his views on America’s stance in the world, he regarded the federal government’s involvement in Nicaraguan affairs as a violation of that country’s sovereignty. In a speech delivered to the Senate on 13 January 1927, Borah took aim at the Coolidge administration and the logic of interventionism predicated upon the Monroe Doctrine. As in his earlier statements, Borah did not shy away from using controversial language to define American policy in Nicaragua. He described American actions in that country as “financial imperialism” and added that the “imperialist, whatever form his activities may take-oil or mahogany or bonds-appeals to the Monroe doctrine [sic] to protect and justify his course.”[cxxiii].

Borah framed his critique with a narrow reading of the Monroe Doctrine. While not free of his paternalistic thinking visa vie Latin America, Borah rejected the logic that political turbulence justified intervention based on the doctrine in Nicaraguan politics. Instead, he claimed that the doctrine’s sole purpose was to protect the sovereignty of Latin American countries from the machinations of the Old World, not to intervene in the country’s internal affairs. He asserted that there was no evidence that a foreign power was stirring up the country’s troubles; therefore, the doctrine did not apply. He further asserted that to extend the logic of the doctrine from external protection to internal meddling was to change it into a “dagger” and “not a shield to those people.”[cxxiv] Borah went so far as to assert that the U.S. government possessed no right to interfere with the country’s politics whatsoever, arguing that Nicaraguans had a right to embrace the government of their choosing, even if it was despotic or non-republican, “[W]hether [ José Santos Zelaya, Nicaragua previous liberal president] was a despot or a tyrant had nothing to do, or ought not to have anything to do, with a policy of the United States” he argued.[cxxv] Borah’s speech was picked up by the Associated Press, where it was carried by newspapers throughout the country.

Borah and his fellow dissenters would have to wait until the arrival of the Herbert Hoover administration for a substantive change in U.S. Latin American foreign policy. Hoover, the former food czar turned Commerce secretary, entered the Oval Office cognizant of the differences in opinion on Latin America within his own party. President Hoover, guided by these political aims, coupled with his own Quaker antimilitarism and experience seeing the Western Front after the Great War, reversed many of his predecessors’ interventionist Latin American policies. Hoover received a window to act after Nicaraguan rebels killed 12 American Marines on New Year’s Eve, 1930. The subsequent public uproar in Congress and among the public provided Hoover with the means to begin the withdrawal of American troops from Nicaragua. Hoover retrenched the use of hard power elsewhere in Latin America. Through a series of personal changes and early directives, Hoover began moves to withdraw American troops from Haiti, a course that would come to pass under his successor, Franklin Delano Roosevelt.[cxxvi] Hoover’s policy changes, backed by an amenable Congress, laid the groundwork for FDR’s “Good Neighbor” policy.[cxxvii]

Maintaining noninterventionism in government was bolstered by a revisionist history movement that vowed to ensure that America would not make the same mistake of entering another European war, leading to broader critiques of government and commercial power in foreign affairs. American scholarly and popular reaction to the war would birth a tradition of historical revisionism which laid the intellectual foundation for the interwar noninterventionists.[cxxviii] Great War revisionists codified then popular views of the war, which laid significant blame for American entry into the war upon the feet of political leadership, industrial concerns, and financial interests. Revisionists coming out of the Great War provided a central narrative for future noninterventionists that they would use to analyze the Second World War and subsequent American foreign policy. A key figure in this revisionist movement, which would profoundly influence the formation of right-wing noninterventionism, came from a man of the Left, progressive historian Charles Beard.

Despite Beard’s early support for American involvement in the conflict, after the calamity of the war yielded an uneasy and vindictive peace that failed to live up to the Wilsonian dream, he came to regret his decision to support American intervention. In his ensuing journey of disillusionment, he became a key member of the revisionist school in American foreign policy. With his disenchantment with American foreign policy complete, Beard began consuming a growing body of literature critical of the Great War, material that he would later merge with his economic method to study American foreign policy. While Beard rarely published on the issue of foreign policy during the height of his academic career, the 1920s began his journey as a foreign policy revisionist.[cxxix] He commenced his study of the Great War after encountering the work of economist John Atkinson Hobson, particularly Hobson’s article “Why the War Came as a Surprise,” published in September 1920 in Political Science Quarterly. Beard was moved by Hobson’s analysis of Europe’s imperial motives and their internal machinations. Similarly, Beard eagerly read Philip Gibbs’s 1923 book, The Realities of War, a work that struggled to convey the grandiose and indescribable horror of the Western Front. By 1927, Beard admitted in his The Rise of American Civilization, co-written with his wife Mary Ritter Beard, that these works had transformed him into a foreign policy revisionist.[cxxx] In the ensuing years, Beard would craft his own revisionist accounts of recent history and the Great War. In doing so, he helped solidify a foreign policy perspective central to American noninterventionism in the interwar period.

Charles Beard was but one revisionist historian who had a direct influence on foreign policy thinking in the interwar period. A contemporary and friend of Beard, historian Harry Elmer Barnes played a similarly prominent role in codifying a revisionist view of the Great War, which would inform interwar noninterventionism. Barnes, who received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1918, also consumed the growing body of literature critical of the conflict and its origins. Like Beard, Barnes was an enthusiastic supporter of U.S. entry into the war, one who became disillusioned by the conflict’s end. In the immediate aftermath of the war, Barnes was colleagues with other prominent revisionists who pulled him into their dissenting camp. By 1923, Barnes was a full professor at Smith College and an outspoken critic of the orthodox view, which held the Germans were the sole initiator of the war.[cxxxi] In 1926, Barnes published his own revisionist take with his book, Genesis of the World War. In it, Barnes castigated the Versailles Treaty and its infamous Article 231, the German war guilt clause. The book cast the fault of the war at the feet of all the great powers but explicitly blamed the cadre of the leadership of the French and Russian empires for expanding the conflict and plunging the continent into war.[cxxxii]

Barnes also heaped scorn upon American governance, especially that provided by President Woodrow Wilson. In a foreshadowing of World War II revisionism, Barnes cast Wilson as a devious executive who withheld his desire to enter the war, not to uphold democracy but rather to save the British and the French from defeat. Additionally, Barnes discounted the illegality of German submarine warfare, which he considered “legitimate retaliation” for the British government’s blockade of German ports.[cxxxiii] Barnes’s characterization of war guilt as being shared by the allied powers and chiefly borne by the leadership class informed the Republican Right’s disdain for political leadership and shaped their future analysis of World War II.

The work of revisionists like Barnes and Beard was paralleled by that of journalists. One book, the provocatively titled Merchants of Death, captured the existing noninterventionist narratives and galvanized them for a national audience. The book, written by H.C. Engelbrecht and Frank Hannigan, seized the noninterventionist mood of the era and inspired political action that revived the languishing Neutrality Act within Congress. Merchants of Death explored the world of international arms manufacturing and its tangled connections to modern governance in what they called “the war system.” The work portrayed many prominent noninterventionist critiques, particularly the centrality of corporate-government marriage and the prevalence of Atlanticist influence within the American war-making establishment. The book further mainstreamed a conspiracist narrative of American entry into the Great War by arguing that the US entered the conflict due to the decisions of a discrete set of ideological actors pursuing their own ends.

Merchants of Death, primarily a work of history, cataloged the long ascent of European industrial trusts and arms manufacturers and their influence on the continent’s imperial affairs. For the United States, while the authors cautioned about laying the entirety of the blame at the feet of American capital, they asserted that by aiding the Allies, American business created the incentive for active entry into the Great War. “American finance had placed its bet on the Allied horse,” they asserted, “and if that should fail to reach the post first, the stakes were so enormous that none dared even think of what might happen.”[cxxxiv] What might have happened was a negotiated peace or a German victory, both of which have been determinantal to the then booming American economy, highly leveraged American banks, and armament manufacturers whose reported profits were “simply colossal.” Engelbrecht and Hanigan’s portrayal of a “war system” served as a capstone to the noninterventionism of the era and shepherded Congress into action to maintain American neutrality. 

The book’s muckraking authors also embodied the diverse political landscape of interwar noninterventionism. Henry Elmer Barnes forwarded the book. Barnes, a burgeoning revisionist historian in his own right, approvingly called the work a “contribution to industrial history, contemporary ethics, international relations, and the peace movement.” John T. Flynn’s Graft in Business, a work on bribery in the private sector, was among the book’s cited authors. Its creators, H.C. Engelbrecht and Frank Hannigan, represented the ideological diversity of the noninterventionist movement of the interwar period, as Engelbrecht was firmly a man of the left and Hanigan of the right. Engelbrecht was a regular contributor to The World Tomorrow.[cxxxv] Hanighen, then a foreign correspondent for the New York Times and a native of Omaha conservative tendencies. Later in the interwar period, Hanighen became a founding member of the America First Committee and along with writer Felix Morley, started one of the first avowedly conservative publications, Human Events, in 1944.

Merchants of Death did not merely make a historical argument about the recent past; it tapped into the mood of the present and fed an active desire to supply public policy. Despite the arrival of the Great Depression and the massive change in political fortunes it portended, noninterventionism remained a national norm, even with the Democratic Party guiding the ship of state. Indeed, the economic malaise of the early 1930s deepened many of the conditions that pushed Americans into nonintervention. The financial crisis soured most Americans on industry and Wall Street, the targets of much Great War revisionism and Merchants of Death. Additionally, the Depression caused the collapse of the Allied loan-Germany-reparations payment cycle, further feeding Americans’ frustrations with the war, the governments involved, and the private sector actors that armed and bankrolled them.[cxxxvi] And, unlike the nascent Third Reich in Hitler’s Germany, American antimilitarists saw their economic woes as an opening to permanently dismantle the “war system.”[cxxxvii]

With such fertile ground, Merchants of Death was met with commercial and critical success. Merchants of Death was selected as the Book of Month Club’s May 1934 and was featured on the New York Times’s best-seller list.[cxxxviii] In small towns and cities throughout the country, reading and lecture groups covered the book and its material. It inspired sermons and Sunday School lectures from New York to Alabama and Iowa. The combination of the economic and critical success of The Merchants of Death, coupled with the public spectacle surrounding the book, furthered the national mood of noninterventionism within the public and the political class.

Beyond readership, the Merchants of Death was a vehicle for political action and became synonymous with the career of one senator in particular, Gerald Nye of North Dakota. Born in Wisconsin in 1892 to a family with deep Republican roots (both of his grandfathers were Union veterans of the Civil War), Nye came of age in the wake of the Spanish-American War and the advent of the country’s growing sectional divide. While he, like Borah, at first supported intervention in World War I, the war’s economic and moral ramifications transformed him into a staunch non-interventionist. Like other cultural and media figures, Nye’s role as a journalist was instrumental in maintaining noninterventionist sentiment among the Midwest’s rural population and demonstrated the importance of small rural papers in shaping public perception.

From his low perch as a small-town journalist and editor, Nye embodied and reflected the Midwest’s socio-cultural anxieties that informed the region’s noninterventionism. His editorials and other journalistic works reflected the region’s populist tendencies, which came to view both big business and big government with suspicion. In his editorials, Nye assailed eastern and metropolitan business interests for the region’s agricultural economic woes. He similarly aimed his pen at the country’s political elite. While a Republican, he was one of progressive, decentralized stripe and bore no hesitancy in slinging mud at the party leadership, including upon the Harding administration during the Teapot Dome scandal or Midwest’s local political leaders. Through the experience of the war, he came to doubt the efficacy of the technocratic state in alleviating the region’s economic concerns. By 1921, he noted that the War Finance Corporation provided “farmers cheap money,” which was no better than the “corporation-money,” both of which were “a joke” that led to economic ruin.[cxxxix]

His disdain for business and political elites motivated his increasingly strident antiwar stance. By the early 1920s, the war ended, and the seemingly needless sacrifice of 117,000 American casualties to maintain Europe’s status quo forced him into the noninterventionist camp. He asserted to his readers that it was the state that had brought the plains’ latest economic ruin, remarking in one editorial “that the North Dakota farmer was well on his way in a program of diversification when the country plunged into the war” adding that the “war set the diversification program back eight years in North Dakota.” His editorial line also took issue with other organs of the warfare state made possible by the Great War. In one opinion piece, Nye claimed that military preparedness was only made possible by “[w]ar lords, munitions manufacturers and men who buy Liberty bonds.[cxl] With his transformation complete, in January of 1926, Nye would take his populist antimilitarism to Washington.

Nye, already established as an antimilitarist crusader by its publication 1936, channeled the cultural impact of Merchants of Death further his own brand of strident noninterventionism. On the floor of Congress, the Senator from South Dakota claimed that the Merchants of Death would “save our Nation billions and our people much suffering if it could be read by every American.”[cxli]  His targets of scorn were both private industry and the federal government. While he placed primacy upon the former, he characterized the relationship between the two entities as a source of world turmoil. In his address, Nye echoed the increasingly popular sentiment that military preparedness created the political and economic incentivizes for further war. Nye claimed that after “preparing defense program,” the U.S. government sent “their supersalesmen off to foreign lands to ply their trade” throughout the world and, in Latin America, had contributed to a political climate of “suspicion and fear.” Nye capped off his address by declaring the arms industry an “insane racket” and an “inhuman trade.” During this speech before the Senate, Nye promoted a resolution he had drafted with his colleague, Senator Arthur Vandenberg (R-OH), to investigate “the activities and methods resorted to by our munitions makers to fatten thin bank accounts in the name of preparedness.”

Nye did not act in isolation but rather made his efforts during a zeitgeist of noninterventionism and antimilitarism, one that cut across partisan boundaries, had support among elite media, and was unburdened by accusations of xenophobia.[cxlii] Among Nye supporters in the press was Oswald Garrison Villard desired answers via the committee. In a provocatively syndicated column entitled “Profiteers in Blood,” Villard argued that business and uniformed military established colluded to maintain combat power engineer war scares for their mutual benefit. This corporatist arrangement led to “a traffic in blood and lives of men the world over.”[cxliii] Like many in the now burgeoning antimilitarist movement, Villard hoped that the committee would create the public will to take private gains out of war. Beyond journalists, the activists too actively lobbied Nye for the hearings. Among them was a pacifist and national director Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, Dorothy Detzer. Despite her left-wing and cosmopolitan politics, her efforts were supported by individuals and groups outside of her political orbit, like conservative businessman Henry Ford and the American Legion. The Legion was among the growing body of noninterventionist organizations that publicly called for taking the profits out of the war as early as 1920.[cxliv] And thus, with a transpartisan wind at its back, the so-called known Nye Committee hearings were born.

The Nye Committee was a set of congressional hearings held in the spring of 1934 and winter of 1936. The committee investigated the underlying banking and financial interests of American entry into the Great War and the armaments industry’s role in supplying the allies. The committee was also concerned with the role of profit-seeking in the armaments industry and those motives’ influence on American foreign policy. The committee makeup was amenable to Nye’s goals. Despite being in the minority party, he chaired the committee and was joined by two fellow Republicans, one of whom was Arthur Vandenberg, a fellow noninterventionist from Ohio. They were joined by a third member of the GOP, Senator William Warren Barbour, who possessed a divided voting pattern on foreign policy. Four Democrats rounded out the committee, Senators Homer T. Bone (WA), James P. Pope (ID), Bennett Champ Clark (MO), and Walter F. George (GA). While considered conservative Democrats, they displayed different inclinations on U.S. foreign policy. While none of the Democratic members demonstrated voting records like that of Nye or Vandenburg, only Senator Walter F. George’s voting record demonstrated clear support for the U.S. foreign goals of the White House, while the rest of his Democratic colleagues on the committee were split on the issue.[cxlv]

Despite generating captive headlines during the initial hearings, the committee’s second iteration of investigations in 1936 quickly unraveled. Partisan rivalry undid the committee, as its Democratic members took issue with Nye’s implications that the Wilson administration had deliberately lied about his ignorance of British and French self-interested war aims, a violation of his lofty wartime rhetoric. This assault on Wilson’s legacy and the FDR administration’s unease about the committee’s impact on its plans for American naval expansion ultimately killed the committee.[cxlvi]

Despite its lofty expectations and breathless coverage, the Nye Committee did not ultimately prove a causal relationship between the armaments industry interests and the United States government’s decision to enter the Great War. While the committee generated numerous shocking headlines, they could not prove that the arms industry was especially nefarious in its intent and often found exculpatory evidence. For instance, the committee discovered that arms manufacturers spent less advertising their wares than pacifist groups opposing them. Furthermore, the executives who testified at the committee often acquitted themselves well, so much so that journalists friendly to the noninterventionist cause were forced to admit that America’s arms manufacturers did not fit the archetype of a death merchant.[cxlvii] The committee’s shortcomings were seized upon by Nye’s critics and those who were skeptical of the merchants of death thesis. Such detractors of the committee accused its participants of running a sham more concerned with generating news copy than determining the facts about American civil-military relations. Liberal columnist Walter Lipmann called the committee a “falsification of history” and asserted that it seemed disinterested in what he deemed the proximate cause of American entry into the war, German use of unrestricted submarine warfare.[cxlviii]

Despite these shortcomings, the committee did produce testimony in support of two core revisionist claims, first that the U.S. government entered the Great War due to incentives from capital investment in the Western Allies and second, that the US was a “pseudo-belligerent” long before 1917.[cxlix] For supporters of the committee, these exchanges were enough to validate the hearings and their views of the war. Well into his turn as a war revisionist, Charles Beard was riveted by the committee hearings. In 1936 Beard wrote a book on the committee entitled The Devil Theory of War, in which he further popularized the notion of an economic incentive on the part of the United States government. John T. Flynn, an adviser to Nye and the committee, defended it and its findings. He asserted that its alleged failures were strawmen erected by its detractors. Instead, like Beard, Flynn asserted that the committee established a relationship between substantial American investment in the Allied cause and eventual American entry into the war. Writing in his New Republic column, Flynn asserted that this relationship “thus invited the train of events that bought us into the war.”[cl]

The Nye hearings, Merchants of Death, and their public response led directly to enacting the Neutrality Act. While the act had languished in committees since its original introduction, the public fervor created by the Nye hearings injected new political will into the act and the logic which initially animated it.[cli] The first session of the 74th Congress was the first congressional meeting to convene under a cloud of another possible European conflagration. While Japan had commenced its war against China in 1931, German repudiation of the Treaty of Versailles made the possibility of another world war a subject of continued congressional debate.

Reintroduced in the Senate by Gerald Nye and Democratic Senator from Missouri, Joel Clarke, the 1935 iteration of the act maintained the core of Theodore Burton’s version, submitted eight years prior. As with its predecessor, the new version of the act aimed to prevent the creation of incentives that may pull the United States into another world war. The act eschewed traditional neutrality rights and forbade material assistance to any belligerent side engaged in a war.[clii] As with its precursor, the act declared that Americans who traveled through war zones did so at their own risk. Both provisions codified into law the dissident-turned-mainstream view of American entry into the Great War and sought to eliminate the construction of the incentives to draw America into another European war. However, from the perspective of a noninterventionist, the act was not perfect as it did not embargo trade in raw materials or prevent loads to belligerent nations, and it contained a sunset provision of six months. The Neutrality Act was passed with support from all political parties and all sections of the country. While the act was passed via voice vote in the House and therefore had no rollcall, the Senate version passed 79-2 with the sole oppositional votes coming from two Democrats with five Republicans abstaining.[cliii]

The adoption of the Neutrality Act represented the political and cultural highwater mark of noninterventionism during the interwar period. The act legally codified a zeitgeist of foreign policy critique that had emerged from the Spanish-American and was mainstreamed by the anguish of the Great War. The entry into, execution, and end of the Great War reconciled the two sections of the Republican Party; a forced marriage normalized many dissenting views on America’s role in the world. Among them was conspiracism directed at the country’s political and business elites, a deep distrust of the munitions industry, and a belief that Europe was a corrupting political force to be kept at arm’s length.

The triumph of noninterventionism was strong enough to survive the political turmoil of the early Great Depression and the political seachange it caused. Despite the change in political leadership, an overwhelmingly Democratic Congress passed the acts, a testament to the prevailing mood of noninterventionism. Buoyed by popular acceptance of works like the Merchants of Death, the act and the Nye Committee that proceeded with it codified a revisionist view of the Great War, which located self-interest and deceit as the core of American involvement in the conflict.

This tide of noninterventionism would, however, recede. Shortly after the passage of the Neutrality Act, the Italian invasion of Ethiopia constituted the first of many tests of American commitment to neutrality. The late 1930s witnessed successive waves of authoritarian aggression that would test, crack, and ultimately dissolve popular determination to remain completely neutral in a world marching, once again, into war. As the United States inched itself into another world war, what was once a broad, ideological consensus on noninterventionism would be particularized. On the eve of American entry into World War II, noninterventionism would become “isolationism,” a reactionary force associated with a new conservative movement, later known as the “Old Right.”


[i]  Allen, Howard W. “Isolationism and German-Americans.” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 57, no. 2 (1964): 143–149, Doenecke, Justus D. Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America’s Entry into World War I. University Press of Kentucky, 2011. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2jcfv4.

[ii] Blower, Brooke L. “From Isolationism to Neutrality: A New Framework for Understanding American Political Culture, 1919–1941.” Diplomatic history 38, no. 2 (2014): 345–376.

[iii] Churchwell, Sarah, Behold, America: The Entangled History of “America First” and “the American Dream” (New York: Basic Books, 2018), Dunn, Susan 1940: FDR, Willkie, Lindbergh, Hitler-the Election amid the Storm (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013). Such arguments have been further resurrected and popularized by such works of speculative fiction such as Philip Roth’s The Against America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004). An exhaustive historiography of “isolationism” can be found in Blower, “From Isolationism to Neutrality: A New Framework for Understanding American Political Culture, 1919–1941.”

[iv] Kazin, Michael War Against War: The American Fight for Peace, 1914-1918 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2017)

[v] Quoted in Kazin, p.21

[vi] Democratic Party Platform, 14 Jun 1916, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/1916-democratic-party-platform

[vii] Quoted in Kupchan, Charles A. Isolationism: A History of America’s Efforts to Shield Itself From the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020), p.227

[viii] Powell, p.74

[ix] Kazin, p.22

[x] Dawley, Alan Changing the World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), p.107-108, Gould, Grand Old Party, p. 206-207, Richardson, Heather Cox. To Make Men Free : a History of the Republican Party. (New York: Basic Books, 2014), p.240, and chapter 7 of Thompson, John H. Great Power Rising (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019)

[xi] Gould, Grand Old Party, p. 206-207

[xii] Fleming, p.92, Dueck, Colin Hard Line: The Republican Party and U.S. Foreign Policy Since World War II (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010) p.18

[xiii] Kennedy, p.19

[xiv] Kennedy, p.42

[xv] For more on the complexity of Lodge’s foreign policy opinions see Christopher McKnight Nichols’s Promise and Peril

[xvi] On the dissent Republican-Democrat alliance, see Kazin, War Against War.

[xvii] Dawley, p.123, See also chapter 1 of Kennedy, David M. Over Here the First World War and American Society. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982)

[xviii] See Gage, Beverly, The Day Wall Street Exploded (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009) p.107, Leonard, Thomas, C. Illiberal Reformers (Princeton: Princeton University, 2016), p.46-49, Wiebe, Robert H. The Search for Order 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967) p.286-302, Rothbard, Murray N. War Collectivism: Power, Business, and the Intellectual Class in World War I, and Kazin, p.196

[xix] Quoted in Nuechterlein, James A. “The Dream of Scientific Liberalism: The ‘New Republic’ and American Progressive Thought, 1914–1920. The Review of Politics, Vol. 42, No. 2 (April 1980), pp. 167–190

[xx] Quoted in Kennedy, p.39

[xxi] See chapter 2 of Drake, Richard Charles Austin Beard: The Return of the Master Historian (Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 2018), Nichols, p.127-129, chapter 1 of Radosh, Ronald Prophets on the Right: Profiles of Conservative Critics of American Globalism (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975)

[xxii] Philbin, James P.  “Charles Austin Beard: Liberal Foe of American Internationalism,” Humanitas, Volume XIII, No. 2, 2000, Kennedy, Thomas C. “Charles A. Beard in Midpassage,”The Historian, February, 1968, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 179-198

[xxiii] Kupchan, p.226

[xxiv] Nichols, Christopher McKnight Promise and Peril: America at the Dawn of a Global Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011) p.139

[xxv] Quoted in Kazin, p.25, see also Doenecke, p.49

[xxvi] Fleming, Thomas The Illusion of Victory: America in World War I (New York: Basic Books, 2003), p.69-71, Kazin, p.25

[xxvii] Fleming, p.70

[xxviii] Powell, p.13, Kazin, p.105-106

[xxix] Quoted in Kazin, p.106

[xxx] Kazin, p.106

[xxxi] Kazin, p.171

[xxxii] Kazin, p.108

[xxxiii] Powell, p.67,

[xxxiv] Neiberg, Michael S. The Path to War: How the First World War Created Modern America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016)

[xxxv] P.126

[xxxvi] La Follette, Robert. “The People Do Not Want this War” 1917. In We Who Dare to Say No to War edited by Murray Polner and Thomas E. Woods (New York: Basic Books, 2008) P.127

[xxxvii] P.125

[xxxviii] Lundeen, Ernest, speaking on H.R. 5913, 65th Congress, 1st sess. Congressional Record 55, pt. 1, p.362

[xxxix] Hull, Harry, speaking on H.R. 5913, 65th Congress, 1st sess. Congressional Record 55, pt. 1, p.347

[xl] Mason, William speaking on H.R. 5913, 65th Congress, 1st sess. Congressional Record 55, pt. 1, p.327

[xli] Quoted in Kazin, p.146

[xlii] Kazin, p.184-185, Kupchan, p.239

[xliii] Quoted in The Idaho Statesman, 5 April 1917 Borah did however oppose other aspects of the war effort such as making large loans to the Allies, and the forthcoming Sedition Act.

[xliv] The sole exception to this sectional rule was from Meyer London, a member of the Socialist Party and Representative from New York’s 12th Congressional district.

[xlv] Kupchan, p.241

[xlvi] Brand, Charles H. speaking on H.R. 3545, 65th Congress, 1st sess. Congressional Record 55, pt.2, p.179

[xlvii] Quoted in Kennedy, p.159. For more on race and conscription, see also Fleming, p.87

[xlviii] Brand, p.179

[xlix] Lundeen, p.363

[l] 8 of 19 House Representatives from west coast states, 42% opposed 65 H.. 3545, “To authorize the President to increase temporarily the Military Establishment of the United States.” 5 of 12 Representatives from Rocky Mountain states opposed the bill, or 41%, 44 of 110 Southerners, or 40%, 43 of 142, 40% of Midwesterners, 4 of 28 those from the Southwest, 14%, and a mere 5 of 121 Representatives from Northern states, or 4% opposed the bill. Opposition was slightly higher among Democrats with 62 of 215 Representatives voting no, 28%, and 45 of 213 Republicans, 21%. See, Congressional Record vol. 55-2, p. 1555; House Journal vol. 65-1, p. 113

[li] See chapter 5 of Kazin, War Against War

[lii] Sedition Act, Pub. L. No. 65-150, 40 Stat. 553 (1918)

[liii] Kazin, p.189

[liv] Fleming, p.106-107, see also Kazin, p.188

[lv] Fleming, p.140

[lvi] Quoted in Fleming, p.140, see also Gage, p.111-113

[lvii] Woodrow Wilson, quoted in Olmsted, Kathryn S. Real Enemies: Conspiracy Theories and American Democracy, World War I to 9/11 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009) p.19

[lviii] Fondren, Elisabeth, and John Maxwell Hamilton. “The Universal Laws of Propaganda: World War I and the Origins of Government Manufacture of Opinion.” The Journal  of Intelligence History (2022): 1–19., see also Hamilton, Manipulating the Masses (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2020), Olmsted, p.18

[lix] Hamilton, p.459

[lx] Luff, Jennifer. “The Anxiety of Influence: Foreign Intervention, U.S. Politics, and World War I.” Diplomatic history 44, no. 5 (2020): 756–785.

[lxi] Luff, “The Anxiety of Influence: Foreign Intervention, U.S. Politics, and World War I.” See also, chapter six of Heineman, Elizabeth D., ed. Sexual Violence in Conflict Zones: From the Ancient World to the Era of Human Rights. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt3fhfgp.

[lxii] DeWitt, Petra. “‘Clear and Present Danger’: The Legacy of the 1917 Espionage Act in the United States.” Historical reflections 42, no. 2 (2016): 115–133.

[lxiii]  Kennedy, p.68,  Kazal, Russell A. Becoming Old Stock The Paradox of German-American Identity. (Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2004).

[lxiv] DeWitt, “Clear and Present Danger,” see also chapter 1 of Kennedy.

[lxv] My family surname, Buck, was changed from Boch by my great-great-grandfather to escape the wartime hysteria of Baltimore, Maryland. For more on the practice, see Kazal, p.192-193

[lxvi] Kazal,p.176

[lxvii] Conservative media tycoon Henry Regnery cited anti-German sentiment and the fallout of the Versailles Treaty as the roots of his noninterventionism. See Hemmer, Messengers of the Right, p.10

[lxviii] Cole, Wayne S. Charles A. Lindbergh and the Battle Against American Intervention in World War II (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974)p.18, see also Olmsted, p.13

[lxix] Quoted in Berg, Scott A. Lindbergh (New York: G.P. Putman’s Sons, 1998) p.49

[lxx] See Berg, p.49, Cole, p.18-19, Olmsted p.20

[lxxi] For a detailed analysis of Wilson’s wartime political economy see Chapter 2 of Kennedy, Over Here

[lxxii] Kennedy, p.102-103, Fleming, p.130-131

[lxxiii] Kennedy, p.106

[lxxiv] Aregood, Richard, Shafer Richard & Freedman Eric “American Isolationism and The Political Evolution of Journalist-Turned-US Senator Gerald P. Nye,” Journalism Practice, (2015) 9:2, 279-294, DOI: 10.1080/17512786.2014.941236, for the impacts of agricultural policy on sectionalism and the 1918 election, see Kennedy, p.244

[lxxv] Kennedy, p.120-121

[lxxvi] Kennedy, p.125-126

[lxxvii] Kennedy, p.278

[lxxviii] “Wisconsin on Trial Before United State,” The Richmond Item, p. 3, 27 March 1918, see also Fleming, p.239-240

[lxxix] Kennedy, p.244, Fleming, p.296 – 298, Busch, Andrew E. Horses in Midstream: U. S. Midterm Elections and Their Consequences (Pittsburg: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1999) p.89

[lxxx] Fleming, p.298

[lxxxi] Busch, Andrew E. Horses in Midstream: U. S. Midterm Elections and Their Consequences (Pittsburg: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1999) p.90

[lxxxii] Kazin, p.268

[lxxxiii] In addition to the aforementioned Wisconsin example,  historian Thomas Fleming cites Nebraska election postmortems as blaming the violence of the American Protective League for creating an anti-Wilson bloc in the Cornhusker state, see Fleming, p.297

[lxxxiv] Powell, Jim Wilson’s War: How Woodrow Wilson’s Great War Blunder Led To Hitler, Lenin, Stalin & World War II (New York: Crown Forum, 2005)p.135-136

[lxxxv] Kennedy, p.356-357, Powell, p.145, Fleming, p.320, Kazin p.144, see also MacMillan, Margaret. Paris 1919 : Six Months That Changed the World. (New York: Random House. 2003).

[lxxxvi] Fleming, p.373, Powell, p.3

[lxxxvii] Nichols, p.256, Fleming, p. 349-351

[lxxxviii] Nichols, p.232

[lxxxix] Borah, William, speaking on H.R. 5913, 66th Congress, 1st sess. Congressional Record 58, pt. 9, p.8783. For more on Borah’s post-WWI foreign policy worldview, see chapter 6 of Nichols, Promise and Peril.  Borah’s views were echoed outside of Congress. Oswald Garrison Villard, at the helm of the Nation magazine had his periodical take an editorial stance that opposed American entry into the League as it would have made the U.S. permanent military ally of the imperial Old World, see Radosh, Ronald Prophets on the Right (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975) p.71

[xc] Fleming, p.403, Gould, p.224

[xci] Quoted in Gould, p.234

[xcii] Nichols, p.24, p.60

[xciii] Kennedy, p.362

[xciv] Nichols, p.261

[xcv] Fleming, p.410

[xcvi] Hamilton, p.5, Fleming, p.425-426

[xcvii] Quoted in Luff, “The Anxiety of Influence: Foreign Intervention, U.S. Politics, and World War I.”

[xcviii] Creel, George. How We Advertised America. New York: Arno Press, 1972. https://archive.org/details/howweadvertameri00creerich/mode/2up

[xcix] Quoted in Hamilton, https://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/story/meet-author-john-maxwell-hamilton

[c] Quoted in King, Erika G. “Exposing the ‘Age of Lies’: The Propaganda Menace as Portrayed in American Magazines in the Aftermath of World War I.” Journal of American Culture 12, no. 1 (1989): 35–40.

[ci] Quoted in King, Erika G. “Exposing the ‘Age of Lies’: The Propaganda Menace as Portrayed in American Magazines in the Aftermath of World War I.”

[cii] For a history of Europe’s interwar wars, see: Gerwarth, Robert The Vanquished (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016)

[ciii] Quoted in Fleming, p.449.

[civ]Gould, p.230, Fleming, p.453

[cv] Quoted in “Cox Ends Campaign with Appeal for League of Nations,” Herald and Review, 2 Nov 1920, see also Fleming, p.465

[cvi] Wilson’s 1912 electoral college victory was greater but benefited greatly from the Republican split between Taft and Roosevelt.

[cvii] Quoted in Richardson, p.250

[cviii] Quoted in Fleming, p.470

[cix] Gould, p.225

[cx] Blower, Brooke L. “From Isolationism to Neutrality: A New Framework for Understanding American Political Culture, 1919–1941.” Diplomatic history 38, no. 2 (2014): 345–376, Gould, p.250

[cxi] Continetti, Matthew. The Right: The Hundred Year War for American Conservatism (Basic Books: New York, 2022) p.18-19

[cxii] Rosenberg, Emily S. Spreading the American Dream (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982) p.117-120

[cxiii] For more on Hoover’s early relief work, see chapter 1 of Wert, Hal Elliott Hoover vs. Roosevelt (Essex: Stackpole Books, 2023)

[cxiv]McKercher, B. J. C.  “Chrysalis of Power: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Retreat from Isolationism, 1919–1941” in A Companion to U.S. Foreign Relations, edited by C.R.W. Dietrich (Wiley, 2020) https://doi-org.mutex.gmu.edu/10.1002/9781119166139.ch17 , Kupchan, Charles A. Isolationism: A History of America’s Efforts to Shield Itself From the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020) , p.263

[cxv] Foster, Anne L. Projections of Power (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010) p.20-21, Kupchan, p.260-261, Dueck, p.20-21

[cxvi] Zeman, Theodore J. “Military Interventions in the Coolidge Administration: Latin American and Asia” in A Companion to Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover, edited by Katherine A.S. Sibley (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2014 ) p.283-283

[cxvii] See chapter 10 of Kupchan, Isolationism

[cxviii] La Follette, Robert M. “Treaty is Jap and British Victory” The Capital Times, 28 Mar 1922, p.9

[cxix] Kramer, p.424, Immerwahr, Daniel How to Hide an Empire: A History of the Greater United States (New York: Picador, 2019) p.158-159

[cxx] McKercher, p.362

[cxxi]Zeman p..278

[cxxii] Nichols, p.299

[cxxiii] Borah, William H. “The Nicaraguan Situation” 69th Congress, 2st sess. Congressional Record 68, pt. 2, p.1556

[cxxiv] Borah, William H. “The Nicaraguan Situation,” p.1556

[cxxv] Borah, William H. “The Nicaraguan Situation” p.1556

[cxxvi] Nichols, p.299-300

[cxxvii] McPherson, Alan. “Herbert Hoover, Occupation Withdrawal, and the Good Neighbor Policy.” Presidential studies quarterly 44, no. 4 (2014): 623–639.

[cxxviii] Stromberg, Joseph R. “Imperialism, Noninterventionism, and Revolution: Opponents of the Modern American Empire,” The Independent Review, Summer 2006, Vol. 11, No. 1 (Summer 2006), pp. 79- 113

[cxxix] See Philbin, p.50 – 51, and Campbell, Craig, “The Not-So-Strange Career of Charles Beard,” Diplomatic History, Spring 2001, Vol. 25, No. 2 (Spring 2001), pp. 251-274

[cxxx] Philbin, p.51

[cxxxi] Libstadt, Deborah. Denying the Holocaust (Plume: New York, 1994), p.32. Riggenbach, Jeff. Why American History Is Not What They Say (Auburn: Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2009)p.106

[cxxxii] Philbin, p.64

[cxxxiii] Philbin, p.65

[cxxxvi] McKercher, p.348

[cxxxvii] Olmsted, p. 28-29, 34, see also McKercher, p.363

[cxxxviii] Doenecke, Justus D., Wilz John E. From Isolation to War 1931-1941 Third edition. (Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 2003) p.57, Thompson, For God and Globe

[cxxxix] Aregood, Richard, Shafer Richard & Freedman Eric “American Isolationism and The Political Evolution of Journalist-Turned-US Senator Gerald P. Nye”

[cxl] Quoted in Aregood, Richard, Shafer Richard & Freedman Eric “American Isolationism and The Political Evolution of Journalist-Turned-US Senator Gerald P. Nye”

[cxli] Nye, Gerald, “War Profits-The Profits of War and Preparedness,” 74th Congress, 1st sess. Congressional Record 78, pt. 6,p. 6458

[cxlii] Similarly, Nye’s crusade, unlike his later Hollywood hearings during World War II were untainted by the pall of antisemitism Olmsted, p.30, 36

[cxliii] Villard, Oswald Garrison, “Profiters in Blood,” Herald and Review, 19 Sept 1934

[cxliv] “Should Wealth be Conscripted,” Herald and Review, 4 May 1935, Lyons, Louis. “Strongest Sentiment on Neutrality Seen in Legion, Middle West” Daily Boston Globe 1 Oct 1939. See also Olmsted, p.30

[cxlv] Of the 32 major rollcall votes on foreign or military affairs during the 74th Congress (1935-1937), Gerald Nye opposed all of them, Senator Walter George supported all of them. Other members of the Nye Committee opposed the same body of rollcall votes as follows, Arthur Vandenberg, 78%, Homer Bone, 63%, Joel Clark, 52%, William Barbour, 50%, and James Pope, 46%.

[cxlvi] Moser p.53-57

[cxlvii] Moser, p.52

[cxlviii] Quoted in, Olson, Lynne Those Angry Days: Roosevelt, Lindbergh, and America’s Fight over World War II, 1939-1941(New York: Random House Publishing, 2014) p.67, see all Lippmann, Walter. “Preparation for Neutrality,” The Detroit Free Press 11 Feb 1936, p.4

[cxlix] Drake, p.80, Wiltz, John Edward. “The Nye Committee Revisited,” The Historian, February, 1961, Vol. 23, No. 2 (February, 1961), pp. 211-233

 

[cli] Moser p.58

[clii] Nichols, p.318

[cliii] The two Democrats who opposed the act were Alabama’s John Bankhead, and Rhode Island’s Peter Gerry. The University of California at Los Angeles’s Voteview.com database refers to the Senate rollcall as a “[l]opsided vote with no ideological division.” https://voteview.com/rollcall/RS0740129

The Great War and Congressional “Isolationism”

I thought I’d take a detour from writing chapter one to craft a quick blog post on something which has been wracking my brain, how did the American experience in World War I impact “isolationism” on the eve of World War II? Of course, historians of noninterventionism have covered this topic, and I’ve touched on it myself. However, I am curious to see if this relationship was reflected in my dataset. Comparing the voting habits of those members who served during the 65th Congress (1915-1917) and the 77th Congress (1941-1943) revealed some interesting trends.

Looking at Voteview.com’s dataset, 20 Republicans who served in Congress, either in the House or the Senate, on the eve of U.S. entry into WWI and voted on the declaration of war with the German Empire were also in Congress as the U.S. entered WWII. Those 20 Republicans averaged 66% opposition to U.S. policy on the eve of WWII, whereas the 45 Democrats who served during both eras averaged just 25% opposition.

Only four of those 20 posted opposition percentages less than 60%, Allen T. Treadway (MA), Wallace White (ME), Fredrick Hale (ME), James Wadsworth Jr. (NY), and George Norris (NE)

Norris, the New Deal-supporting Republican, turned Independent, was the only member of the 20 who opposed U.S. entry into WWI but became a reliable supporter of U.S. policy entering WWII.

A “cast_code” of “1” means that they voted yay on SJR1, the declaration of war on the German Empire in 1917. A “cast_code” of 6 means that they opposed the measure. “oppo_per” refers to the level of opposition to U.S. foreign policy on the eve of U.S. entry into WWII. “congress_num” is the number of congresses each member served.

The remaining 16 posted opposition percentages between 61% and 92% to U.S. foreign policy between the 74th and 77th Congresses (before Pearl Harbor). Interestingly, when grouped by their position on entry into WWI, they posted similar opposition to the run-up to WWII. William Borah, “the Great Opposer,” was perhaps the most well know of the 14 and became known for his passionate opposition to the future involvement of the U.S. in foreign wars. And, for those who do not know, only Jeannette Rankin of Montana opposed U.S. entry into WWI and the declaration of war upon Japan after Pearl Harbor.

A “cast_code” of “1” means that they voted yay on SJR1, the declaration of war on the German Empire in 1917. A “cast_code” of 6 means that they opposed the measure. “Mean” is the average level of opposition to U.S. policy on the eve of U.S. entry into WWII.

The Great War and its aftermath solidified Republican opposition toward entry into the Second World War. Whether or not that was “good” or “bad” is irrelevant. “Isolationists” were not merely motivated by myopia, nativism, or antisemitism. Many, like these congresspeople, looked back upon American entry into the Great War and vowed not to do it again.

The Last Call for Midwestern Noninterventionism

I’m working through Chapter 4, “Confronting Vietnam, 1965-1975,” for my dissertation, “Partisans of the Old Republic.” Among the historical inquiries animating this chapter is how the Vietnam War impacted American conservatism. Now, this question has yielded some great scholarship. However, earlier work is primarily concerned with the emerging New Right, not the decline of the more noninterventionist, and largely Midwestern Old Right.

While I’ve previously broached this topic here on this blog, I recently ran into a primary source that got me thinking about this decline. Libertarian activist Leonard Liggio provided an analysis of the 1966 midterm elections for Vietnam News Service: Of the National Coordinating Committee to End the War in Vietnam.” In it, he notes that the electoral results could presage a swing towards foreign policy restraint, as had happened in the wake of the Korean War.

Liggio first cautioned the reader that he felt that the results “will not cause a change in the Johnson Administration’s foreign policy.” However, he later noted that the GOP, especially in the Midwest, that “traditional stronghold of isolationism and anti-imperialism,” picked up a number of seats. Liggio’s analysis was tinged with cautious optimism that perhaps the Republican Party’s noninterventionist wing would reassert itself in light of the horror in Vietnam.

For the noninterventionist movement, tragically, he was wrong. As I’ve talked about elsewhere on this blog, the new generation of Republican politicians was considerably more inclined towards interventionism, regardless of region or ideology. Rather than serving as a rebirth of Rightwing noninterventionism, Vietnam heralded its death…at least politically.

Of the 20 Midwestern Republicans who began their careers in the 90th Congress (as a result of the 1966 midterms), none would crack the 50% mark for foreign policy opposition throughout their congressional careers. As a cohort, these 20 Republicans averaged a mere 31% of opposition throughout their careers, which was actually lower (34%)than that of the other 38 from elsewhere in the U.S. who began their careers in the 90th Congress.

Perhaps unbeknownst to Liggio, the Republican Midwest was already undergrowing a political transformation visa vie its foreign policy worldviews. As a body, new Midwestern Republicans had not averaged a career opposition percentage over 50% since the 87th Congress (1960 general elections, see figure 1). The last Midwestern Republicans to begin their careers in 1960 were Robert T. McLoskey (IL-19) and Pete Abele (OH-10), who served only one term. While popular noninterventionist incumbents would serve throughout the 1960s, none would begin their careers in the decade. This has posed an interesting dichotomy that I am still trying to unpack.

Figure 1: This graphic depicts the life course of noninterventionist thought within the Midwestern Republican Party. The graphic illustrates the decline of Midwestern Republican noninterventionism. Centrist Republicans from the Midwest shed their noninterventionism earlier than their right-wing counterparts. As a body, Republican Representative centrists from the Midwest ceased to average 50% opposition throughout their careers, with those who began their careers in the 76th Congress on the eve of US entry into WWII. However, right-wing Republicans from the Midwest continued to send House members to Washington well after WWII and the Korean War. It would not be until the 88th Congress (1961) that new members of the Midwestern Republican House ceased to average 50% opposition throughout their careers. The x-axis of this graphic depicts the first congress served, from the 65th until the 93rd (1917 to 1975). The y-axis represents the average foreign policy opposition from 1935 until 1975 by each first congress served. Each dot is sized by the number of new members for the center and right wings, were are depicted by their trendlines, solid for the centrists and dotted for the rightwingers.

The decline of the House is interesting when juxtaposed with that of the Senate. Republican Midwestern Senators, as a body, shed their noninterventionism faster than colleagues in the House. This is of note because, on the eve of World War II, the Republican Senators from the Midwest were some of the most strident figures in the “isolationist” stable. However, with the exception of two gubernatorial appointments, Midwestern Republicans sent their last noninterventionist to the Senate in Andrew Frank Schoeppel in 1949. Again, some Senate incumbents continued to serve through the 1950s, but new members would not appear through the same period (figure 2).

Figure 2: This graphic depicts the life course of noninterventionist thought within the Midwestern Republican Party. The graphic illustrates the decline of Midwestern Republican noninterventionism. Noninterventionism with Republican Senators disappeared a decade earlier than their counterparts in the House. The x-axis of this graphic depicts the first congress served, from the 65th until the 93rd (1917 to 1975). The y-axis represents the average foreign policy opposition from 1935 until 1975 by each first congress served. Each dot is sized by the number of new members for the center and right wings, were are depicted by their trendlines, solid for the centrists and dotted for the rightwingers.

Liggio was incorrect in his hypothesis. Somehow the tradition of Midwestern noninterventionism died. The data suggest that it was a long, beleaguered, and contextual end. The electoral viability of noninterventionist incumbents, juxtaposed with the inability to create new members, poses a historical quandary, which I am excited to answer.

The Loneliness of Ron Paul: By the Numbers, 1975–1985

In 2022, the ideological landscape of American foreign policy opposition is the most dynamic and diverse it has been in over eight decades. This is especially true for the right, as a new crop of libertarian-leaning and populist Republicans are challenging key precepts of America’s mission in the world. For those who know their foreign policy history or who are old enough to remember the Cold War, this represents a seachange in the American right.

While the right has a long history of “isolationism,” that tradition of foreign policy restraint waned for much of the early Cold War. Caught under political pressure, generational turnover, and internal tension between anticommunism and restraint, right-wing noninterventionism effectively vanished from the GOP by the early 1970s. And it is in that vacuum that Ron Paul began his congressional career in 1975.

When Ron Paul began his political career in the 94th Congress he was a man after his time. With the retirement of Iowa Congressman H.R. Gross, the last of the so-called “Old Right” departed office. In their place arose the “New Right,” a new generation of conservatives more aligned with the goals of the Cold War and the technocratic liberal vision which undergirded them. During his first two stints in Congress (1975-1977 and 1979-1985), Paul served as the lone voice of right-wing opposition to U.S. foreign policy.

Of all of the 473 Representatives or Senators who began their careers between 1975 and 1985, Ron Paul posted the highest career opposition to U.S. foreign policy, at 72%. Of the 202 Republicans, his next highest competitor was Claudine Schneider (RI-2), a liberal GOPer who voted in opposition a relatively lower 47% (see below). Rep. Paul’s uniqueness was especially stark given his generation (Silent, born 1935) and ideology (libertarianism). The 35 right-wing Republicans of the Silent generation who began their careers between 1975 to 1985 averaged a career opposition percentage of a mere 29.4%.

RankNameWing of PartyCareer Opposition PercentageGenerationChamberState
1PAUL, Ronald ErnestRight0.728426396silentHouseTX
2SCHNEIDER, ClaudineLeft0.472081218boomerHouseRI
3LEACH, James Albert SmithCenter0.45245559silentHouseIA
4CAPUTO, Bruce FaulknerCenter0.4453125silentHouseNY
5TAUKE, Thomas JosephCenter0.434370771boomerHouseIA
6EVANS, Thomas CooperCenter0.43019943greatestHouseIA
7KELLY, RichardRight0.429648241greatestHouseFL
8ATKINSON, Eugene VincentCenter0.42519685greatestHousePA
9CRANE, Daniel BeverRight0.424silentHouseIL
10SENSENBRENNER, Frank James, Jr.Right0.417737789silentHouseWI
11PETRI, Thomas EvertCenter0.407979408silentHouseWI
12STEERS, Newton Ivan, Jr.Left0.402515723greatestHouseMD
13BROWN, George Hanks (Hank)Right0.395280236silentHouseCO
14BROWN, George Hanks (Hank)Right0.395280236silentSenateCO
15HINSON, Jon CliftonRight0.389705882silentHouseMS
16GREEN, Sedgwick William (Bill)Left0.381920904silentHouseNY
17DECKARD, Huey JoelCenter0.377192982silentHouseIN
18ROUKEMA, Margaret ScafatiCenter0.372093023silentHouseNJ
19JEFFRIES, James EdmundRight0.371541502greatestHouseKS
20McKERNAN, John Rettie, Jr.Center0.369477912boomerHouseME
21GOODLING, William FranklinCenter0.36809816greatestHousePA
22RIDGE, Thomas JosephCenter0.36802974silentHousePA
23DeNARDIS, Lawrence JosephCenter0.365384615silentHouseCT
24WALKER, Robert SmithRight0.364864865silentHousePA
25JEFFORDS, James MerrillCenter0.364798427silentHouseVT
26JEFFORDS, James MerrillCenter0.364798427silentSenateVT
27GRISHAM, Wayne RichardCenter0.362869198greatestHouseCA
28EMERY, David FarnhamCenter0.358boomerHouseME
29PURSELL, Carl DuaneCenter0.357623318silentHouseMI
30DANNEMEYER, William EdwinRight0.355527638silentHouseCA
31ZSCHAU, Edwin Van WyckCenter0.35443038silentHouseCA
32ERDAHL, Arlen IngolfCenter0.352226721silentHouseMN
33HOLLENBECK, Harold CapistranLeft0.351010101silentHouseNJ
34BETHUNE, Edwin Ruthvin, Jr.Center0.350132626silentHouseAR
35KINDNESS, Thomas NormanCenter0.348360656silentHouseOH
36STUMP, Robert LeeRight0.348242812greatestHouseAZ
37ROBERTS, Charles Patrick (Pat)Center0.347962382silentHouseKS
38SMITH, Dennis Alan (Denny)Right0.347079038silentHouseOR
39MARKS, Marc LincolnLeft0.345360825greatestHousePA
40FENWICK, Millicent HammondCenter0.343936382greatestHouseNJ
41STOCKMAN, David AlanCenter0.343283582boomerHouseMI
42SMITH, Virginia DoddRight0.342942346greatestHouseNE
43DUNN, James WhitneyCenter0.342592593silentHouseMI
44MARLENEE, Ronald CharlesCenter0.341356674silentHouseMT
45ROTH, Toby A.Center0.335435057silentHouseWI
46HOPKINS, Larry JonesCenter0.334610473silentHouseKY
47CUNNINGHAM, John Edward, IIIRight0.333333333silentHouseWA
48GRASSLEY, Charles ErnestCenter0.332369942silentHouseIA
49GRASSLEY, Charles ErnestCenter0.332369942silentSenateIA
50WILLIAMS, LyleCenter0.331428571silentHouseOH
51NIELSON, Howard CurtisRight0.330661323greatestHouseUT
52GREGG, Judd AlanCenter0.328boomerHouseNH
53HAGEDORN, Thomas MichaelCenter0.32776618silentHouseMN
54SNOWE, Olympia JeanCenter0.327521793boomerHouseME
55PRESSLER, Larry LeeCenter0.321748879silentHouseSD
56PRESSLER, Larry LeeCenter0.321748879silentSenateSD
57GUNDERSON, Steven CraigCenter0.320610687boomerHouseWI
58SMITH, Robert FreemanCenter0.320297952silentHouseOR
59SHUMWAY, Norman DavidRight0.319838057silentHouseCA
60LEE, Gary AlcideCenter0.318367347silentHouseNY
61CORCORAN, Thomas JosephCenter0.317117117silentHouseIL
62MARTIN, Lynn MorleyCenter0.316582915silentHouseIL
63MOORE, William Henson, IIIRight0.31420765silentHouseLA
64ROYER, William HowardCenter0.314049587greatestHouseCA
65KRAMER, Kenneth BentleyCenter0.314049587silentHouseCO
66EDWARDS, Marvin Henry (Mickey)Center0.313577586silentHouseOK
67RITTER, Donald LawrenceCenter0.311621967silentHousePA
68RUDD, Eldon DeanRight0.311111111greatestHouseAZ
69WHITTAKER, Robert RussellCenter0.306578947silentHouseKS
70SPECTER, ArlenCenter0.305511811silentSenatePA
71CHAFEE, John HubbardCenter0.304677623greatestSenateRI
72MARRIOTT, David DanielRight0.30418251silentHouseUT
73BENEDICT, Cleveland KeithCenter0.301886792silentHouseWV
74JARMAN, JohnRight0.301775148greatestHouseOK
75BADHAM, Robert EdwardRight0.300802139silentHouseCA
76SOLOMON, Gerald Brooks HuntCenter0.300771208silentHouseNY
77SCHAEFER, DanielCenter0.296577947silentHouseCO
78DREIER, David TimothyCenter0.292944785boomerHouseCA
79STANGELAND, Arlan IngehartCenter0.292547275silentHouseMN
80DAUB, Harold John, Jr., (Hal)Center0.29233871silentHouseNE
81DORNAN, Robert KennethCenter0.291721419silentHouseCA
82CARNEY, WilliamCenter0.290060852silentHouseNY
83BEREUTER, Douglas KentCenter0.289962825silentHouseNE
84CRAIG, Larry EdwinCenter0.28983308silentHouseID
85CRAIG, Larry EdwinCenter0.28983308silentSenateID
86BOEHLERT, Sherwood LouisCenter0.289134438silentHouseNY
87LOEFFLER, Thomas GilbertRight0.288617886boomerHouseTX
88JOHNSON, Nancy LeeCenter0.288354898silentHouseCT
89SCHULZE, Richard TaylorCenter0.288235294silentHousePA
90CHAPPIE, Eugene A.Center0.283489097greatestHouseCA
91DAVIS, Robert WilliamCenter0.283068783silentHouseMI
92LUNGREN, Daniel EdwardCenter0.282208589boomerHouseCA
93MYERS, Gary ArthurCenter0.28125silentHousePA
94PASHAYAN, Charles, Jr.Center0.280898876silentHouseCA
95BILIRAKIS, MichaelCenter0.280148423silentHouseFL
96FIELDS, Jack Milton, Jr.Right0.278713629boomerHouseTX
97HANSEN, James VearRight0.277070064silentHouseUT
98COLEMAN, Earl ThomasCenter0.276663147silentHouseMO
99McCANDLESS, Alfred A.Center0.275605214greatestHouseCA
100BURTON, Danny LeeRight0.27458256silentHouseIN
101BAILEY, R. WendellCenter0.273584906silentHouseMO
102DURENBERGER, David FerdinandCenter0.272596844silentSenateMN
103PORTER, John EdwardCenter0.271816881silentHouseIL
104GRADISON, Willis David, Jr.Center0.269932757silentHouseOH
105QUAYLE, James Danforth (Dan)Center0.266937669boomerHouseIN
106QUAYLE, James Danforth (Dan)Center0.266937669boomerSenateIN
107EMERSON, Norvell William (Bill)Center0.265940902silentHouseMO
108CAMPBELL, Carroll Ashmore, Jr.Right0.263829787silentHouseSC
109SILJANDER, Mark DeliCenter0.263473054boomerHouseMI
110WEBER, John Vincent (Vin)Center0.261941448boomerHouseMN
111GRAMM, William Philip (Phil)Right0.26163522silentHouseTX
112GRAMM, William Philip (Phil)Right0.26163522silentSenateTX
113SMITH, Christopher HenryCenter0.26146789boomerHouseNJ
114EVANS, Daniel JacksonCenter0.261290323greatestSenateWA
115GEKAS, George WilliamCenter0.261029412silentHousePA
116COATS, Daniel RayCenter0.260806916silentHouseIN
117COATS, Daniel RayCenter0.260806916silentSenateIN
118JOHNSTON, Walter Eugene, IIIRight0.260416667silentHouseNC
119LEWIS, Thomas F.Center0.260147601greatestHouseFL
120KASSEBAUM, Nancy LandonCenter0.259887006silentSenateKS
121SAWYER, Harold SamuelCenter0.258687259greatestHouseMI
122VUCANOVICH, Barbara FarrellCenter0.256457565greatestHouseNV
123CLINGER, William Floyd, Jr.Center0.254950495silentHousePA
124CHANDLER, Rodney DennisCenter0.254752852silentHouseWA
125GINGRICH, Newton LeroyCenter0.254545455silentHouseGA
126CHENEY, Richard BruceRight0.254372019silentHouseWY
127ROGERS, Harold Dallas (Hal)Right0.253456221silentHouseKY
128McEWEN, BobRight0.253205128boomerHouseOH
129PACKARD, Ronald C.Right0.252788104silentHouseCA
130COURTER, James AndrewCenter0.250372578silentHouseNJ
131LEWIS, Charles Jeremy (Jerry)Center0.24863388silentHouseCA
132SMITH, Albert Lee, Jr.Right0.245283019silentHouseAL
133FIEDLER, BobbiCenter0.244956772silentHouseCA
134HUNTER, Duncan LeeRight0.244548287boomerHouseCA
135THOMAS, William MarshallCenter0.243455497silentHouseCA
136HILER, John PatrickCenter0.242975207boomerHouseIN
137HENDON, William MartinCenter0.242152466silentHouseNC
138SUNDQUIST, Donald KennethCenter0.239332096silentHouseTN
139TRIBLE, Paul Seward, Jr.Right0.237583893boomerHouseVA
140TRIBLE, Paul Seward, Jr.Right0.237583893boomerSenateVA
141ROBERTS, Clint RonaldRight0.235849057silentHouseSD
142McGRATH, Raymond JosephCenter0.234548336silentHouseNY
143LIVINGSTON, Robert Linlithgow, Jr.Right0.234042553silentHouseLA
144HUMPHREY, Gordon JohnRight0.234042553silentSenateNH
145HARTNETT, Thomas ForbesRight0.233226837silentHouseSC
146EVANS, Thomas Beverley, Jr.Center0.233173077silentHouseDE
147FRANKLIN, William WebsterRight0.233050847silentHouseMS
148BARTLETT, Harry Stephen (Steve)Right0.23015873boomerHouseTX
149SHAW, Eugene Clay, Jr.Center0.229938272silentHouseFL
150KASICH, John RichardRight0.229357798boomerHouseOH
151MOLINARI, Guy VictorCenter0.227598566silentHouseNY
152PETTIS, Shirley NeilCenter0.225806452greatestHouseCA
153OXLEY, Michael GarverCenter0.223809524silentHouseOH
154COYNE, James Kitchenman, IIICenter0.223300971boomerHousePA
155McCOLLUM, Ira William, Jr. (Bill)Center0.217527387silentHouseFL
156SCHMITT, Harrison HaganCenter0.216117216silentSenateNM
157WALLOP, MalcolmRight0.21509434silentSenateWY
158MACK, Connie, IIICenter0.215073529silentHouseFL
159MACK, Connie, IIICenter0.215073529silentSenateFL
160DANFORTH, John ClaggettCenter0.211936663silentSenateMO
161HATCH, Orrin GrantCenter0.211421628silentSenateUT
162BLILEY, Thomas Jerome, Jr.Center0.210445469silentHouseVA
163SKEEN, Joseph RichardRight0.208588957greatestHouseNM
164HYDE, Henry JohnCenter0.207243461greatestHouseIL
165WORTLEY, George CorneliusCenter0.206349206greatestHouseNY
166WOLF, Frank RudolphCenter0.20398773silentHouseVA
167BATEMAN, Herbert HarvellRight0.201492537silentHouseVA
168McCAIN, John Sidney, IIICenter0.1996337silentHouseAZ
169McCAIN, John Sidney, IIICenter0.1996337silentSenateAZ
170DeWINE, MichaelCenter0.197979798boomerHouseOH
171GARN, Edwin Jacob (Jake)Center0.197940503silentSenateUT
172NAPIER, John LightRight0.196261682boomerHouseSC
173NELLIGAN, James LeoCenter0.194444444silentHousePA
174EAST, John PorterRight0.192771084silentSenateNC
175HAYAKAWA, Samuel IchiyeCenter0.191011236greatestSenateCA
176WEBER, Edward FordCenter0.19047619silentHouseOH
177KASTEN, Robert Walter, Jr.Center0.18967587silentHouseWI
178KASTEN, Robert Walter, Jr.Center0.18967587silentSenateWI
179BOSCHWITZ, Rudolph Eli (Rudy)Center0.186646434silentSenateMN
180RUDMAN, Warren BruceCenter0.185483871silentSenateNH
181MARTIN, David O'BrienCenter0.185123967silentHouseNY
182JEPSEN, Roger WilliamCenter0.183098592silentSenateIA
183MATTINGLY, Mack FrancisRight0.182926829silentSenateGA
184WARNER, John WilliamCenter0.181818182greatestSenateVA
185NICKLES, Donald LeeRight0.181818182boomerSenateOK
186SIMPSON, Alan KooiCenter0.181568088silentSenateWY
187HAWKINS, PaulaCenter0.180645161greatestSenateFL
188LUGAR, Richard GreenCenter0.177458034silentSenateIN
189DENTON, Jeremiah Andrew, Jr.Right0.17571885greatestSenateAL
190ASHBROOK, Jean SpencerRight0.175silentHouseOH
191MORRISON, Sidney WallaceCenter0.174045802silentHouseWA
192HECHT, Jacob ChicCenter0.171014493silentSenateNV
193LOWERY, William DavidCenter0.165625boomerHouseCA
194MURKOWSKI, Frank HughesCenter0.164763458silentSenateAK
195D'AMATO, Alfonse MarcelloCenter0.164274322silentSenateNY
196GORTON, Thomas Slade, III (Slade)Center0.161793372silentSenateWA
197BRADY, Nicholas FrederickCenter0.161290323silentSenateNJ
198STATON, David MichaelRight0.155963303silentHouseWV
199CARMAN, Gregory WrightCenter0.154545455silentHouseNY
200DOUGHERTY, Charles FrancisLeft0.152838428silentHousePA
201LeBOUTILLIER, JohnCenter0.147058824boomerHouseNY
202WILSON, PeteCenter0.140589569silentSenateCA

During the height of the Cold War’s re-escalation, Paul was the sole right-wing Republican consistently in opposition to the excesses of US foreign policy. By the mid-1970s, the poles of opposition to U.S. foreign policy flipped. This seismic change in the ideological polarity of opposition to U.S. foreign policy effectively broke the political continuity of the interventionist right…save for the presence of Ron Paul. In this new political landscape, Paul was essentially on his own. Plotting Paul alongside his Democratic colleagues who posted similar opposition from 1975 to 1985, his political loneliness becomes clear.

These two graphics compare the ideological landscapes of congressional opposition to U.S. foreign policy between those who began their careers between 1935 and 1945 (above) and those who started their careers between 1975 and 1985 (below). Each dot represents a House member or Senator who voted in opposition more than 50%. Each member is located on a two-dimensional political axis. The x-axis depicts a member’s position on economic policy, with further to the left, the more liberal, and the further right, more conservative. The y-axis represents a member’s social policy position; the lower their position, the more liberal, the higher, the more conservative. Each member is colored by their party, red for Republican, blue for Democrat. Each member is sized by their career opposition percentage. The ideological landscape of congressional opposition to US foreign policy from 1935 until 1945 was ideologically and politically varied. While the GOP was the primary party of opposition a number of Democrats and members of other political parties recorded significant opposition.
By the time Rep. Ron Paul began his career, the ideological diversity of foreign police opposition had all but disappeared. Paul was the only Republican to oppose U.S. foreign policy more than 50% of the time during his first two stints in Congress (1975-1977, 1979-1985).

The uniqueness of Paul’s voting record on military policy is even starker given his generation, party affiliation, and ideology. While 41 Democrats posted higher military policy opposition than Paul (see below), his 69% opposition percentage was the highest in the GOP. And while several leftwing and centrist Republicans resisted the excesses of the military-industrial complex, Paul was the only right-wing Republican who posted significant opposition. Paul’s closet competitor on the Republican right, Jim Sensenbrenner voted in opposition to defense policy only 39% of the time.

RankNamePartyWing of PartyMilitary Policy Opposition PercentageGeneration
1NOLAN, Richard MichaelDemocratLeft0.865979381443299silent
2OWENS, Major Robert OdellDemocratLeft0.847058823529412silent
3RICHMOND, Frederick WilliamDemocratLeft0.843537414965986greatest
4MAGUIRE, Gene AndrewDemocratLeft0.839622641509434silent
5CROCKETT, George William, Jr.DemocratLeft0.839378238341969greatest
6SAVAGE, GusDemocratLeft0.829383886255924greatest
7WEAVER, James HowardDemocratLeft0.823529411764706greatest
8HAYES, Charles ArthurDemocratLeft0.822485207100592greatest
9WEISS, Theodore S.DemocratLeft0.81651376146789greatest
10BATES, JimDemocratLeft0.804878048780488silent
11GARCIA, RobertDemocratLeft0.802238805970149silent
12LELAND, George Thomas (Mickey)DemocratLeft0.801652892561983silent
13TOWNS, EdolphusDemocratLeft0.796407185628742silent
14BURTON, Sala GalanteDemocratLeft0.793650793650794greatest
15MOODY, JimDemocratLeft0.786516853932584silent
16WASHINGTON, HaroldDemocratLeft0.773584905660377greatest
17BEDELL, Berkley WarrenDemocratLeft0.771428571428571greatest
18MOFFETT, Anthony John, Jr. (Toby)DemocratLeft0.769230769230769silent
19BOXER, BarbaraDemocratLeft0.767045454545455silent
20BEILENSON, Anthony CharlesDemocratLeft0.766990291262136silent
21MILLER, GeorgeDemocratLeft0.765578635014837silent
22ACKERMAN, Gary LeonardDemocratLeft0.742857142857143silent
23WHEAT, Alan DupreeDemocratLeft0.740540540540541boomer
24HARKIN, Thomas Richard (Tom)DemocratLeft0.736507936507937silent
25DYMALLY, Mervyn MalcolmDemocratLeft0.736318407960199greatest
26OBERSTAR, James LouisDemocratLeft0.735632183908046silent
27MARKEY, Edward JohnDemocratLeft0.73015873015873boomer
28AuCOIN, LesDemocratLeft0.725856697819315silent
29BLOUIN, Michael ThomasDemocratLeft0.72463768115942silent
30MORRISON, Bruce AndrewDemocratLeft0.72289156626506silent
31FRANK, BarneyDemocratLeft0.719827586206897silent
32SIKORSKI, Gerald EdwardDemocratLeft0.718918918918919boomer
33LOWRY, Michael EdwardDemocratLeft0.71551724137931silent
34GRAY, William Herbert, IIIDemocratLeft0.715415019762846silent
35VENTO, Bruce FrankDemocratLeft0.714285714285714silent
36BONIOR, David EdwardDemocratLeft0.711538461538462silent
37EDGAR, Robert WilliamDemocratLeft0.708154506437768silent
38SABO, Martin OlavDemocratLeft0.706959706959707silent
39KOSTMAYER, Peter HoustonDemocratLeft0.704119850187266boomer
40BERMAN, Howard LawrenceDemocratLeft0.7silent
41HALL, Katie BeatriceDemocratLeft0.697674418604651silent
42PAUL, Ronald ErnestRepublicanRight0.693430656934307silent
43KILDEE, Dale EdwardDemocratCenter0.689024390243902silent
44DURBIN, Richard JosephDemocratLeft0.688524590163934silent
45MRAZEK, Robert JanDemocratLeft0.685714285714286silent
46TSONGAS, Paul EfthemiosDemocratLeft0.675862068965517silent
47WYDEN, Ronald LeeDemocratLeft0.675105485232067boomer
48BRODHEAD, William McNultyDemocratLeft0.672727272727273silent
49EARLY, Joseph DanielDemocratLeft0.671875silent
50WOLPE, Howard Eliot, IIIDemocratLeft0.671480144404332silent
51EVANS, Lane AllenDemocratLeft0.666666666666667boomer
52CARR, Milton Robert (Bob)DemocratLeft0.66551724137931silent
53RUSSO, Martin AnthonyDemocratLeft0.663690476190476silent
54LEVINE, Meldon EdisesDemocratLeft0.662790697674419silent
55WAXMAN, Henry ArnoldDemocratLeft0.657232704402516silent
56BALDUS, Alvin JamesDemocratLeft0.657142857142857greatest
57SHANNON, James MichaelDemocratLeft0.653543307086614boomer
58PENNY, Timothy JosephDemocratLeft0.652173913043478boomer
59LAUTENBERG, Frank RaleighDemocratLeft0.646153846153846greatest
60MacKAY, Kenneth Hood, Jr. (Buddy)DemocratLeft0.644927536231884silent
61WILLIAMS, John PatrickDemocratLeft0.64367816091954silent
62SCHUMER, Charles Ellis (Chuck)DemocratLeft0.642553191489362boomer
63FEIGHAN, Edward FarrellDemocratLeft0.642458100558659boomer
64WALGREN, DouglasDemocratLeft0.639344262295082silent
65LUNDINE, Stanley NelsonDemocratLeft0.635467980295567silent
66MITCHELL, George JohnDemocratLeft0.634408602150538silent
67TORRES, Esteban EdwardDemocratCenter0.632432432432432silent
68LEVIN, Sander MartinDemocratLeft0.631868131868132silent
69PATTISON, Edward WorthingtonDemocratLeft0.628571428571429silent
70DIXON, Julian CareyDemocratLeft0.627118644067797silent
71COYNE, William JosephDemocratLeft0.627118644067797silent
72SCHNEIDER, ClaudineRepublicanLeft0.626126126126126boomer
73LEHMAN, Richard HenryDemocratLeft0.624309392265193boomer
74RIEGLE, Donald Wayne, Jr.DemocratLeft0.624137931034483silent
75RAHALL, Nick Joe, IIDemocratCenter0.622950819672131boomer
76DOWNEY, Thomas JosephDemocratLeft0.622478386167147boomer
77GEJDENSON, SamuelDemocratLeft0.620833333333333boomer
78SMITH, Lawrence JackDemocratCenter0.619318181818182silent
79DORGAN, Byron LeslieDemocratCenter0.618025751072961silent
80BRADLEY, William Warren (Bill)DemocratLeft0.617801047120419silent
81CORNELL, Robert JohnDemocratLeft0.613333333333333greatest
82LEAHY, Patrick JosephDemocratLeft0.612403100775194silent
83MIKULSKI, Barbara AnnDemocratLeft0.60958904109589silent
84WIRTH, Timothy E.DemocratLeft0.608695652173913silent
85KAPTUR, Marcia Carolyn (Marcy)DemocratCenter0.607734806629834boomer
86DONNELLY, Brian JosephDemocratLeft0.607003891050584boomer
87KLECZKA, Gerald DanielDemocratLeft0.605095541401274silent
88PEASE, Donald JamesDemocratLeft0.603715170278638silent
89NOWAK, Henry JamesDemocratLeft0.603498542274053silent
90BOSCO, Douglas HarryDemocratLeft0.602484472049689boomer
91FORD, Harold EugeneDemocratLeft0.600660066006601silent
92FOGLIETTA, Thomas MichaelIndependentLeft0.6silent
93FOGLIETTA, Thomas MichaelDemocratLeft0.6silent
94HERTEL, Dennis MarkDemocratLeft0.595833333333333boomer
95STAGGERS, Harley Orrin, Jr.DemocratCenter0.595628415300546boomer
96KEYS, Martha ElizabethDemocratLeft0.594594594594595silent
97BAUCUS, Max SiebenDemocratCenter0.590909090909091silent
98McNULTY, James Francis, Jr.DemocratCenter0.58695652173913greatest
99MINETA, Norman Y.DemocratLeft0.586705202312139silent
100LEVIN, CarlDemocratLeft0.585silent
101BONKER, Don LeroyDemocratLeft0.583333333333333silent
102SIMON, Paul MartinDemocratLeft0.582456140350877silent
103LEACH, James Albert SmithRepublicanCenter0.580745341614907silent
104McHUGH, Matthew FrancisDemocratLeft0.580459770114943silent
105BUMPERS, DaleDemocratCenter0.579365079365079greatest
106DASCHLE, Thomas AndrewDemocratCenter0.576612903225806boomer
107PANETTA, Leon EdwardDemocratLeft0.575851393188854silent
108BORSKI, Robert Anthony, Jr.DemocratCenter0.573770491803279boomer
109BARNES, Michael DarrDemocratLeft0.570621468926554silent
110SOLARZ, Stephen JoshuaDemocratLeft0.569321533923304silent
111TAUKE, Thomas JosephRepublicanCenter0.569230769230769boomer
112ECKART, Dennis EdwardDemocratLeft0.564315352697095boomer
113LeFANTE, Joseph AnthonyDemocratCenter0.564102564102564silent
114STEERS, Newton Ivan, Jr.RepublicanLeft0.5625greatest
115MART�NEZ, Matthew G.DemocratCenter0.562162162162162silent
116DWYER, Bernard JamesDemocratCenter0.561702127659575greatest
117FLORIO, James JosephDemocratLeft0.561151079136691silent
118CARPER, Thomas RichardDemocratLeft0.559782608695652boomer
119HART, Gary WarrenDemocratCenter0.556213017751479silent
120SWIFT, Allan ByronDemocratCenter0.555956678700361silent
121TORRICELLI, Robert GuyDemocratLeft0.555555555555556boomer
122BOUCHER, Frederick C.DemocratCenter0.554913294797688boomer
123CAVANAUGH, John JosephDemocratLeft0.55421686746988silent
124OAKAR, Mary RoseDemocratCenter0.553691275167785silent
125MOYNIHAN, Daniel PatrickDemocratLeft0.54954954954955greatest
126KENNELLY, Barbara BaileyDemocratLeft0.546341463414634silent
127WISE, Robert Ellsworth, Jr.DemocratCenter0.545945945945946boomer
128HARRISON, Frank GirardDemocratCenter0.545454545454545silent
129MEYNER, Helen StevensonDemocratLeft0.541666666666667silent
130CLARKE, James McClureDemocratCenter0.53968253968254greatest
131RATCHFORD, William RichardDemocratLeft0.539568345323741silent
132ZSCHAU, Edwin Van WyckRepublicanCenter0.536585365853659silent
133MATSUI, Robert T.DemocratLeft0.534545454545455silent
134ERDAHL, Arlen IngolfRepublicanCenter0.533333333333333silent
135McCLOSKEY, Francis XavierDemocratCenter0.532967032967033silent
136HALL, Tony PatrickDemocratCenter0.532319391634981silent
137DODD, Christopher JohnDemocratLeft0.532075471698113silent
138AMMERMAN, Joseph ScofieldDemocratLeft0.523809523809524greatest
139GREEN, Sedgwick William (Bill)RepublicanLeft0.520408163265306silent
140COELHO, TonyDemocratCenter0.520361990950226silent
141LaFALCE, John JosephDemocratCenter0.519402985074627silent
142KOLTER, Joseph PaulDemocratCenter0.514285714285714greatest
143BLANCHARD, James JohnstonDemocratLeft0.513513513513513silent
144GEPHARDT, Richard AndrewDemocratCenter0.513513513513513silent
145BRYANT, John WileyDemocratCenter0.511363636363636boomer
146SYNAR, Michael LynnDemocratLeft0.509025270758123boomer
147SLATTERY, James CharlesDemocratLeft0.508108108108108boomer
148MAVROULES, Nicholas JamesDemocratLeft0.50185873605948silent
149CORNWELL, David LanceDemocratCenter0.5silent
150SASSER, James RalphDemocratRight0.497716894977169silent
151FENWICK, Millicent HammondRepublicanCenter0.496932515337423greatest
152GLICKMAN, Daniel RobertDemocratLeft0.495238095238095silent
153OLIN, James R.DemocratCenter0.491891891891892greatest
154PURSELL, Carl DuaneRepublicanCenter0.488817891373802silent
155STEWART, Bennett McVeyDemocratLeft0.485714285714286greatest
156COOPER, James Hayes ShofnerDemocratLeft0.480225988700565boomer
157ROUKEMA, Margaret ScafatiRepublicanCenter0.479166666666667silent
158LANTOS, Thomas PeterDemocratLeft0.478813559322034silent
159VOLKMER, Harold LeeDemocratCenter0.476780185758514silent
160JEFFORDS, James MerrillRepublicanCenter0.473846153846154silent
161RIDGE, Thomas JosephRepublicanCenter0.472527472527473silent
162TUCKER, James (Jim) Guy, Jr.DemocratCenter0.472222222222222silent
163SHARP, Philip RileyDemocratLeft0.47093023255814silent
164MURPHY, Austin JohnDemocratLeft0.469055374592834greatest
165KOGOVSEK, Raymond PeterDemocratCenter0.467153284671533silent
166RICHARDSON, BillDemocratCenter0.464088397790055boomer
167GUARINI, Frank Joseph, Jr.DemocratLeft0.462686567164179greatest
168EVANS, Thomas CooperRepublicanCenter0.458904109589041greatest
169BENJAMIN, Adam, Jr.DemocratCenter0.453900709219858silent
170HAYES, Philip HaroldDemocratLeft0.45silent
171FERRARO, Geraldine AnneDemocratLeft0.448529411764706silent
172HUGHES, William JohnDemocratLeft0.446991404011461silent
173DeNARDIS, Lawrence JosephRepublicanCenter0.446428571428571silent
174FISHER, Joseph LymanDemocratLeft0.444444444444444greatest
175HOLLENBECK, Harold CapistranRepublicanLeft0.442748091603053silent
176MATTOX, James AlbonDemocratLeft0.442622950819672silent
177KREBS, John HansDemocratLeft0.44greatest
178PETRI, Thomas EvertRepublicanCenter0.43956043956044silent
179HOYER, Steny HamiltonDemocratCenter0.429166666666667silent
180FORD, Wendell HamptonDemocratRight0.428571428571429greatest
181MYERS, Michael Joseph (Ozzie)DemocratCenter0.416666666666667silent
182STACK, Edward JohnDemocratCenter0.416666666666667greatest
183REID, HarryDemocratCenter0.414201183431953silent
184CAPUTO, Bruce FaulknerRepublicanCenter0.41025641025641silent
185FITHIAN, Floyd JamesDemocratLeft0.407142857142857silent
186BINGAMAN, Jesse Francis, Jr. (Jeff)DemocratCenter0.404580152671756silent
187SPRATT, John McKee, Jr.DemocratCenter0.403314917127072silent
188FAZIO, Victor Herbert, Jr.DemocratCenter0.401486988847584silent
189ERTEL, Allen EdwardDemocratCenter0.393700787401575silent
190LEDERER, Raymond FrancisDemocratCenter0.392405063291139silent
191JOHNSON, Nancy LeeRepublicanCenter0.392265193370166silent
192SENSENBRENNER, Frank James, Jr.RepublicanRight0.392156862745098silent
193ALLEN, Clifford RobertsonDemocratCenter0.391304347826087greatest
194ANTHONY, Beryl Franklin, Jr.DemocratCenter0.391129032258065silent
195SPELLMAN, Gladys NoonDemocratLeft0.386792452830189greatest
196BEARD, Edward PeterDemocratLeft0.385321100917431silent
197APPLEGATE, Douglas EarlDemocratCenter0.385113268608414silent
198CHAFEE, John HubbardRepublicanCenter0.384615384615385greatest
199ALBOSTA, Donald JosephDemocratCenter0.384615384615385greatest
200FOWLER, Wyche, Jr.DemocratCenter0.382352941176471silent
201HARRIS, Herbert Eugene, IIDemocratLeft0.378378378378378greatest
202BROWN, George Hanks (Hank)RepublicanRight0.376518218623482silent
203AKAKA, Daniel KahikinaDemocratCenter0.375384615384615greatest
204McKERNAN, John Rettie, Jr.RepublicanCenter0.370786516853933boomer
205HOWE, Allan TurnerDemocratCenter0.368421052631579greatest
206GOODLING, William FranklinRepublicanCenter0.366459627329193greatest
207PATTERSON, Jerry MumfordDemocratCenter0.365979381443299silent
208D'AMOURS, Norman EdwardDemocratLeft0.362745098039216silent
209DeCONCINI, Dennis WebsterDemocratRight0.361111111111111silent
210DERRICK, Butler Carson, Jr.DemocratCenter0.359649122807018silent
211TALLON, Robert Mooneyhan, Jr. (Robin)DemocratCenter0.357541899441341boomer
212SNOWE, Olympia JeanRepublicanCenter0.355072463768116boomer
213YOUNG, Robert Anton, IIIDemocratCenter0.352678571428571greatest
214GORE, Albert Arnold, Jr.DemocratCenter0.349480968858132boomer
215GUNDERSON, Steven CraigRepublicanCenter0.345833333333333boomer
216LIPINSKI, William OliverDemocratCenter0.345454545454545silent
217GLENN, John Herschel, Jr.DemocratLeft0.344greatest
218NEAL, Stephen LybrookDemocratCenter0.335329341317365silent
219MICA, Daniel AndrewDemocratCenter0.33495145631068silent
220PORTER, John EdwardRepublicanCenter0.334661354581673silent
221BEREUTER, Douglas KentRepublicanCenter0.334532374100719silent
222DICKS, Norman DeValoisDemocratCenter0.328173374613003silent
223HEFTEL, Cecil LandauDemocratCenter0.326424870466321greatest
224ORTIZ, Solomon P.DemocratRight0.325966850828729silent
225DIXON, Alan JohnDemocratCenter0.321428571428571greatest
226SISISKY, NormanDemocratCenter0.320652173913043greatest
227ROBERTS, Charles Patrick (Pat)RepublicanCenter0.320512820512821silent
228EVANS, David WalterDemocratCenter0.318471337579618boomer
229MOTTL, Ronald MiltonDemocratCenter0.315436241610738silent
230COLEMAN, Ronald D'EmoryDemocratRight0.315217391304348silent
231DOWDY, Charles WayneDemocratRight0.314814814814815silent
232EVANS, Daniel JacksonRepublicanCenter0.313432835820896greatest
233ATKINSON, Eugene VincentDemocratCenter0.311827956989247greatest
234ATKINSON, Eugene VincentRepublicanCenter0.311827956989247greatest
235SMITH, Christopher HenryRepublicanCenter0.309623430962343boomer
236CHANDLER, Rodney DennisRepublicanCenter0.30939226519337silent
237ANDREWS, Michael AllenDemocratCenter0.302197802197802silent
238KASSEBAUM, Nancy LandonRepublicanCenter0.300518134715026silent
239HEFNER, Willie Gathrel (Bill)DemocratRight0.29673590504451silent
240SHAMANSKY, Robert NortonDemocratLeft0.296296296296296greatest
241FROST, Jonas MartinDemocratCenter0.295454545454545silent
242MARKS, Marc LincolnRepublicanLeft0.295081967213115greatest
243EXON, J. JamesDemocratRight0.295greatest
244DURENBERGER, David FerdinandRepublicanCenter0.294736842105263silent
245ROWLAND, James Roy, Jr.DemocratRight0.293478260869565greatest
246DURKIN, John AnthonyDemocratCenter0.292307692307692silent
247DUNN, James WhitneyRepublicanCenter0.290909090909091silent
248PRESSLER, Larry LeeRepublicanCenter0.288617886178862silent
249McCURDY, David KeithDemocratCenter0.287610619469027boomer
250SANTINI, James DavidDemocratCenter0.287581699346405silent
251HUMPHREY, Muriel BuckDemocratLeft0.285714285714286greatest
252SMITH, Robert FreemanRepublicanCenter0.281767955801105silent
253WATKINS, Wesley WadeDemocratRight0.276666666666667silent
254STOCKMAN, David AlanRepublicanCenter0.273972602739726boomer
255BRITT, Charles RobinDemocratCenter0.272727272727273silent
256MOLLOHAN, Alan BowlbyDemocratRight0.270718232044199silent
257BOEHLERT, Sherwood LouisRepublicanCenter0.27027027027027silent
258GRASSLEY, Charles ErnestRepublicanCenter0.269503546099291silent
259AMBRO, Jerome Anthony, Jr.DemocratLeft0.268518518518519silent
260ROTH, Toby A.RepublicanCenter0.268382352941176silent
261SMITH, Virginia DoddRepublicanRight0.267857142857143greatest
262BOREN, David LyleDemocratRight0.265625silent
263ROEMER, Charles Elson (Buddy), IIIDemocratCenter0.265060240963855silent
264GRADISON, Willis David, Jr.RepublicanCenter0.263157894736842silent
265JENKINS, Edgar Lanier (Ed)DemocratRight0.262975778546713silent
266SPECTER, ArlenRepublicanCenter0.261627906976744silent
267DECKARD, Huey JoelRepublicanCenter0.261363636363636silent
268STEWART, Donald WilburDemocratRight0.260869565217391silent
269GREGG, Judd AlanRepublicanCenter0.255208333333333boomer
270PEYSER, Peter A.DemocratLeft0.251700680272109greatest
271HANNAFORD, Mark WarrenDemocratLeft0.25greatest
272HATCHER, Charles FloydDemocratRight0.247706422018349silent
273MARTIN, Lynn MorleyRepublicanCenter0.246636771300448silent
274DYSON, Royden PatrickDemocratCenter0.243119266055046boomer
275SMITH, Dennis Alan (Denny)RepublicanRight0.240740740740741silent
276WEBER, John Vincent (Vin)RepublicanCenter0.240506329113924boomer
277BONER, William HillDemocratCenter0.238095238095238silent
278ERDREICH, BenDemocratCenter0.237837837837838silent
279WALKER, Robert SmithRepublicanRight0.235294117647059silent
280THOMAS, Robert LindsayDemocratRight0.234972677595628silent
281WILLIAMS, LyleRepublicanCenter0.234848484848485silent
282RAY, Richard BelmontDemocratRight0.233333333333333greatest
283RITTER, Donald LawrenceRepublicanCenter0.23134328358209silent
284VALENTINE, Itimous Thaddeus, Jr., (Tim)DemocratCenter0.23121387283237greatest
285MYERS, Gary ArthurRepublicanCenter0.22972972972973silent
286HOPKINS, Larry JonesRepublicanCenter0.22962962962963silent
287DARDEN, George (Buddy)DemocratRight0.226993865030675silent
288HOLLAND, Kenneth LamarDemocratRight0.224806201550388silent
289CLINGER, William Floyd, Jr.RepublicanCenter0.223826714801444silent
290HUBBARD, Carroll, Jr.DemocratCenter0.221556886227545silent
291FARY, John G.DemocratCenter0.221476510067114greatest
292NIELSON, Howard CurtisRepublicanRight0.218934911242604greatest
293SCHAEFER, DanielRepublicanCenter0.21264367816092silent
294ENGLISH, Glenn Lee, Jr.DemocratRight0.208695652173913silent
295HUCKABY, Thomas JeraldDemocratRight0.205298013245033silent
296SKELTON, Isaac Newton, IV (Ike)DemocratRight0.203225806451613silent
297EVANS, Thomas Beverley, Jr.RepublicanCenter0.202898550724638silent
298JENRETTE, John Wilson, Jr.DemocratRight0.202020202020202silent
299LEVITAS, Elliott HarrisDemocratCenter0.200980392156863silent
300ANDERSON, Wendell RichardDemocratLeft0.2silent
301DANFORTH, John ClaggettRepublicanCenter0.2silent
302ZEFERETTI, Leo C.DemocratCenter0.197452229299363greatest
303DANNEMEYER, William EdwinRepublicanRight0.196363636363636silent
304VANDERGRIFF, Tommy (Tom) JoeDemocratRight0.195652173913043greatest
305WHITTAKER, Robert RussellRepublicanCenter0.193181818181818silent
306CRANE, Daniel BeverRepublicanRight0.192592592592593silent
307COYNE, James Kitchenman, IIIRepublicanCenter0.192307692307692boomer
308DAUB, Harold John, Jr., (Hal)RepublicanCenter0.189473684210526silent
309BYRON, Beverly Barton ButcherDemocratRight0.188405797101449silent
310COATS, Daniel RayRepublicanCenter0.187755102040816silent
311HODGES, Kaneaster, Jr.DemocratRight0.1875silent
312ROYER, William HowardRepublicanCenter0.1875greatest
313GUDGER, Vonno Lamar, Jr.DemocratCenter0.186666666666667greatest
314STANGELAND, Arlan IngehartRepublicanCenter0.186274509803922silent
315HIGHTOWER, Jack EnglishDemocratRight0.183574879227053greatest
316STENHOLM, Charles WalterDemocratRight0.183150183150183silent
317HILER, John PatrickRepublicanCenter0.18141592920354boomer
318FLIPPO, Ronnie GeneDemocratRight0.181159420289855silent
319BENEDICT, Cleveland KeithRepublicanCenter0.178571428571429silent
320TAUZIN, Wilbert Joseph (Billy)DemocratRight0.177777777777778silent
321SCHULZE, Richard TaylorRepublicanCenter0.177514792899408silent
322HALL, Sam Blakeley, Jr.DemocratRight0.176470588235294greatest
323BRADY, Nicholas FrederickRepublicanCenter0.176470588235294silent
324MARLENEE, Ronald CharlesRepublicanCenter0.174496644295302silent
325BARNARD, Druie Douglas, Jr.DemocratRight0.174377224199288greatest
326DAVIS, Robert WilliamRepublicanCenter0.174242424242424silent
327LEATH, James MarvinDemocratRight0.171875silent
328BARTLETT, Harry Stephen (Steve)RepublicanRight0.170588235294118boomer
329GEKAS, George WilliamRepublicanCenter0.169398907103825silent
330HANCE, Kent RonaldDemocratRight0.169354838709677silent
331McCANDLESS, Alfred A.RepublicanCenter0.168478260869565greatest
332MOORE, William Henson, IIIRepublicanRight0.167364016736402silent
333PATMAN, William NeffDemocratRight0.166666666666667greatest
334McGRATH, Raymond JosephRepublicanCenter0.165254237288136silent
335LLOYD, Marilyn LairdDemocratCenter0.162790697674419silent
336HALL, Tim LeeDemocratCenter0.16greatest
337SAWYER, Harold SamuelRepublicanCenter0.159763313609467greatest
338MARRIOTT, David DanielRepublicanRight0.159763313609467silent
339CORCORAN, Thomas JosephRepublicanCenter0.158469945355191silent
340DREIER, David TimothyRepublicanCenter0.157676348547718boomer
341LLOYD, James FredrickDemocratLeft0.157407407407407greatest
342BURTON, Danny LeeRepublicanRight0.156424581005587silent
343MOLINARI, Guy VictorRepublicanCenter0.154929577464789silent
344SHAW, Eugene Clay, Jr.RepublicanCenter0.154811715481172silent
345MORRISON, Sidney WallaceRepublicanCenter0.153526970954357silent
346NELSON, Clarence William (Bill)DemocratCenter0.153256704980843silent
347LEWIS, Thomas F.RepublicanCenter0.153005464480874greatest
348PACKARD, Ronald C.RepublicanRight0.152173913043478silent
349IRELAND, Andrew Poysell (Andy)DemocratRight0.151315789473684silent
350CRAIG, Larry EdwinRepublicanCenter0.151260504201681silent
351WOLF, Frank RudolphRepublicanCenter0.150627615062762silent
352EMERY, David FarnhamRepublicanCenter0.150602409638554boomer
353WHITLEY, Charles OrvilleDemocratRight0.150442477876106greatest
354BETHUNE, Edwin Ruthvin, Jr.RepublicanCenter0.150375939849624silent
355ZORINSKY, EdwardDemocratRight0.15silent
356ROGERS, Harold Dallas (Hal)RepublicanRight0.146443514644351silent
357SHUMWAY, Norman DavidRepublicanRight0.146153846153846silent
358WORTLEY, George CorneliusRepublicanCenter0.145833333333333greatest
359McEWEN, BobRepublicanRight0.145299145299145boomer
360HANSEN, James VearRepublicanRight0.14468085106383silent
361COLEMAN, Earl ThomasRepublicanCenter0.144654088050314silent
362BILIRAKIS, MichaelRepublicanCenter0.144444444444444silent
363THOMAS, William MarshallRepublicanCenter0.143396226415094silent
364STONE, Richard BernardDemocratRight0.142857142857143silent
365MORGAN, Robert BurrenDemocratRight0.142857142857143greatest
366GAMMAGE, Robert AltonDemocratRight0.142857142857143silent
367HATFIELD, Paul GerhartDemocratRight0.142857142857143silent
368SMITH, Joseph FrancisDemocratCenter0.142857142857143greatest
369PASHAYAN, Charles, Jr.RepublicanCenter0.142276422764228silent
370HALL, Ralph MoodyDemocratRight0.142259414225941greatest
371VUCANOVICH, Barbara FarrellRepublicanCenter0.141304347826087greatest
372EMERSON, Norvell William (Bill)RepublicanCenter0.141025641025641silent
373KINDNESS, Thomas NormanRepublicanCenter0.139917695473251silent
374EDWARDS, Marvin Henry (Mickey)RepublicanCenter0.13915857605178silent
375SUNDQUIST, Donald KennethRepublicanCenter0.138888888888889silent
376KASICH, John RichardRepublicanRight0.137362637362637boomer
377FIELDS, Jack Milton, Jr.RepublicanRight0.136929460580913boomer
378DeWINE, MichaelRepublicanCenter0.136094674556213boomer
379STUMP, Robert LeeDemocratRight0.133333333333333greatest
380GINGRICH, Newton LeroyRepublicanCenter0.133333333333333silent
381HUNTER, Duncan LeeRepublicanRight0.133333333333333boomer
382STUMP, Robert LeeRepublicanRight0.133333333333333greatest
383COURTER, James AndrewRepublicanCenter0.132743362831858silent
384DORNAN, Robert KennethRepublicanCenter0.132295719844358silent
385CUNNINGHAM, John Edward, IIIRepublicanRight0.131578947368421silent
386EVANS, Billy LeeDemocratRight0.130769230769231silent
387QUAYLE, James Danforth (Dan)RepublicanCenter0.130653266331658boomer
388RISENHOOVER, Theodore MarshallDemocratRight0.130434782608696silent
389OXLEY, Michael GarverRepublicanCenter0.129464285714286silent
390FRANKLIN, William WebsterRepublicanRight0.127906976744186silent
391BAILEY, R. WendellRepublicanCenter0.127272727272727silent
392WEBER, Edward FordRepublicanCenter0.127272727272727silent
393SKEEN, Joseph RichardRepublicanRight0.126050420168067greatest
394HEFLIN, Howell ThomasDemocratRight0.125628140703518greatest
395SCHMITT, Harrison HaganRepublicanCenter0.125silent
396ASHBROOK, Jean SpencerRepublicanRight0.125silent
397BATEMAN, Herbert HarvellRepublicanRight0.125silent
398LEWIS, Charles Jeremy (Jerry)RepublicanCenter0.124513618677043silent
399CHAPPIE, Eugene A.RepublicanCenter0.124087591240876greatest
400BAILEY, Donald AllenDemocratRight0.123595505617978silent
401McCAIN, John Sidney, IIIRepublicanCenter0.121951219512195silent
402KRAMER, Kenneth BentleyRepublicanCenter0.11864406779661silent
403HAWKINS, PaulaRepublicanCenter0.118279569892473greatest
404KELLY, RichardRepublicanRight0.118181818181818greatest
405LUNGREN, Daniel EdwardRepublicanCenter0.117903930131004boomer
406LOWERY, William DavidRepublicanCenter0.117647058823529boomer
407SILJANDER, Mark DeliRepublicanCenter0.117647058823529boomer
408GORTON, Thomas Slade, III (Slade)RepublicanCenter0.117241379310345silent
409SHELBY, Richard C.DemocratRight0.1171875silent
410McCOLLUM, Ira William, Jr. (Bill)RepublicanCenter0.117154811715481silent
411KRUEGER, Robert CharlesDemocratCenter0.116666666666667silent
412BOSCHWITZ, Rudolph Eli (Rudy)RepublicanCenter0.116666666666667silent
413LEE, Gary AlcideRepublicanCenter0.114942528735632silent
414MARTIN, David O'BrienRepublicanCenter0.113122171945701silent
415McDONALD, Lawrence PattonDemocratRight0.112994350282486silent
416GRISHAM, Wayne RichardRepublicanCenter0.1125greatest
417MACK, Connie, IIIRepublicanCenter0.112359550561798silent
418CHENEY, Richard BruceRepublicanRight0.111607142857143silent
419ALLEN, Maryon PittmanDemocratRight0.111111111111111greatest
420HUMPHREY, Gordon JohnRepublicanRight0.111111111111111silent
421MURKOWSKI, Frank HughesRepublicanCenter0.109756097560976silent
422HUTTO, Earl DewittDemocratRight0.109489051094891greatest
423HYDE, Henry JohnRepublicanCenter0.10828025477707greatest
424BADHAM, Robert EdwardRepublicanRight0.108108108108108silent
425CARMAN, Gregory WrightRepublicanCenter0.107142857142857silent
426SOLOMON, Gerald Brooks HuntRepublicanCenter0.106870229007634silent
427HARTNETT, Thomas ForbesRepublicanRight0.10655737704918silent
428JOHNSTON, Walter Eugene, IIIRepublicanRight0.106382978723404silent
429CAMPBELL, Carroll Ashmore, Jr.RepublicanRight0.105882352941176silent
430BLILEY, Thomas Jerome, Jr.RepublicanCenter0.105485232067511silent
431MATTINGLY, Mack FrancisRepublicanRight0.103092783505155silent
432HAYAKAWA, Samuel IchiyeRepublicanCenter0.102564102564103greatest
433JEPSEN, Roger WilliamRepublicanCenter0.101123595505618silent
434LIVINGSTON, Robert Linlithgow, Jr.RepublicanRight0.100694444444444silent
435KASTEN, Robert Walter, Jr.RepublicanCenter0.1silent
436DOUGHERTY, Charles FrancisRepublicanLeft0.1silent
437WALLOP, MalcolmRepublicanRight0.0995260663507109silent
438LUGAR, Richard GreenRepublicanCenter0.0977777777777778silent
439CARNEY, WilliamRepublicanCenter0.0949720670391061silent
440FIEDLER, BobbiRepublicanCenter0.0942028985507246silent
441RUDMAN, Warren BruceRepublicanCenter0.0941176470588235silent
442HAGEDORN, Thomas MichaelRepublicanCenter0.0933333333333333silent
443D'AMATO, Alfonse MarcelloRepublicanCenter0.0930232558139535silent
444GRAMM, William Philip (Phil)DemocratRight0.0916666666666667silent
445GRAMM, William Philip (Phil)RepublicanRight0.0916666666666667silent
446HENDON, William MartinRepublicanCenter0.0909090909090909silent
447ROBERTS, Clint RonaldRepublicanRight0.0909090909090909silent
448LOEFFLER, Thomas GilbertRepublicanRight0.0898876404494382boomer
449PETTIS, Shirley NeilRepublicanCenter0.0895522388059701greatest
450GARN, Edwin Jacob (Jake)RepublicanCenter0.088silent
451SIMPSON, Alan KooiRepublicanCenter0.0845771144278607silent
452MUSTO, Raphael JohnDemocratCenter0.0833333333333333silent
453RUDD, Eldon DeanRepublicanRight0.0818181818181818greatest
454WARNER, John WilliamRepublicanCenter0.0796019900497512greatest
455LeBOUTILLIER, JohnRepublicanCenter0.0727272727272727boomer
456NELLIGAN, James LeoRepublicanCenter0.0727272727272727silent
457SMITH, Albert Lee, Jr.RepublicanRight0.0714285714285714silent
458NAPIER, John LightRepublicanRight0.0714285714285714boomer
459JEFFRIES, James EdmundRepublicanRight0.0666666666666667greatest
460LEACH, Anthony Claude, Jr.DemocratRight0.0666666666666667silent
461HATCH, Orrin GrantRepublicanCenter0.0642201834862385silent
462WYATT, Joseph Peyton, Jr.DemocratRight0.0571428571428571silent
463TRIBLE, Paul Seward, Jr.RepublicanRight0.0560747663551402boomer
464EAST, John PorterRepublicanRight0.0555555555555556silent
465STATON, David MichaelRepublicanRight0.0526315789473684silent
466NICKLES, Donald LeeRepublicanRight0.0511363636363636boomer
467WILSON, PeteRepublicanCenter0.043859649122807silent
468DENTON, Jeremiah Andrew, Jr.RepublicanRight0.0434782608695652greatest
469JARMAN, JohnRepublicanRight0.0379746835443038greatest
470HINSON, Jon CliftonRepublicanRight0.0303030303030303silent
471HECHT, Jacob ChicRepublicanCenter0.0246913580246914silent

Paul’s position as a right-wing opponent of excessive defense spending was unique among his peers and generationally out of place. While earlier generations of right-wing Republicans opposed U.S. defense budgets, the draft, and other programs, such figures were exceeding rare after WWII. Until Paul, the last right-wing Republican to fight defense policy was Senator William Langer (ND, 51% opposition), who left Congress in 1959. Again, Paul was on his own in advocating for defense restraint from a uniquely right-wing or libertarian perspective.

This graphic depicts the generational voting patterns on defense policy for the Republican party. Each dot represents a Republican Senator or House member as indicated by shape. Each dot is colored by the member’s wing, green for the left, red for centrists, and blue for those on the right. Each member is located on an x-axis that shows their first congress served, and on a y-axis depicts their career opposition to defense spending and policy (between 1935 and 1992). When Paul entered Congress in 1975 he was the first right-wing Republican to consistently oppose the excesses of defense spending in 16 years. The last such political figure, Senator Herman Welker (R-ID) began his career in 1951.

On foreign aid and diplomatic policy, Paul was similarly the sole consistent right-wing voice of restraint. On issues of foreign aid (which includes all forms of economic, military, and technical assistance) Paul posted 78% opposition, number one overall. Paul was similarly the sole consistent voice of right-wing restraint on foreign aid and diplomatic policy. Similarly, on issues of Diplomatic policy (defense pacts, economic arrangements, overseas military deployments), led the oppositional pack and posted with 72%. His nearest competitor, conservative Democrat Larry McDonald, voted in opposition with 59% in this category.

Paul opposed U.S. covert operations in Nicaragua. He voted against military assistance to El Salvador. He sought to limit the presence of U.S. troops in Central America and fought to bring American troops home from Lebanon. In all of these actions, he was among a mere handful of Republicans and still fewer who could be considered conservative or libertarian. 

While some in the liberty movement view Paul as a controversial figure, it is undoubtedly true that he was the single political thread that attached the Old Right to this new era of political transformation. Of the 2,404 Senators and Representatives who served between 1935 and 1992, Rep. Paul ranks #30 in all-time opposition to U.S. foreign policy. Of Republicans, he ranks #23. And of those born after 1930, he’s at the top of the hill at #1. See below for my 1935-1992 leaderboard.

Regardless of what others may think of his legacy, he kept the lights on for a vision of foreign policy restraint based on sound money, national sovereignty, and nonviolence. For those that desire a more sane foreign policy, regardless of ideology, that alone should warrant gratitude.

RankNameCareer OppositionFinal PartyWing of PartyFirst CongressLast CongressStateGenerationborn
1DOWELL, Cassius Clay0.925925926RepublicanRight6476IAmissionary1864
2FRAZIER, Lynn Joseph0.892857143RepublicanRight6876NDmissionary1874
3BINDERUP, Charles Gustav0.857142857DemocratLeft7475NEmissionary1873
4HOLT, Rush Dew0.841269841DemocratRight7476WVgreatest1905
5BUCHANAN, James Paul0.833333333DemocratCenter6375TXmissionary1867
6TAYLOR, James Willis0.828571429RepublicanRight6676TNmissionary1880
7MOORE, Edward Hall0.807692308RepublicanRight7880OKmissionary1871
8LORD, Bert0.8RepublicanCenter7476NYmissionary1869
9LUNDEEN, Ernest0.790123457OtherRight6576MNmissionary1878
10WERDEL, Thomas Harold0.789473684RepublicanRight8182CAgreatest1905
11DARROW, George Potter0.787878788RepublicanCenter6476PAprogressive1859
12JENNER, William Ezra0.784172662RepublicanRight7885INgreatest1908
13NYE, Gerald Prentice0.783216783RepublicanRight6978NDlost1892
14LAMBERTSON, William Purnell0.78RepublicanRight7178KSmissionary1880
15O'MALLEY, Thomas David Patrick0.777777778DemocratLeft7375WIgreatest1903
16BOLLES, Stephen0.775RepublicanCenter7677WImissionary1866
17LUCKEY, Henry Carl0.772727273DemocratCenter7475NEmissionary1868
18BORAH, William Edgar0.772727273RepublicanRight6076IDmissionary1865
19MALONE, George Wilson0.772151899RepublicanRight8085NVlost1890
20SHIPSTEAD, Henrik0.771604938RepublicanRight6879MNmissionary1881
21SMITH, Clyde Harold0.769230769RepublicanCenter7576MEmissionary1876
22SNELL, Bertrand Hollis0.761904762RepublicanRight6475NYmissionary1870
23RICH, Robert Fleming0.759124088RepublicanRight7181PAlost1883
24BOLTON, Chester Castle0.75RepublicanCenter7176OHmissionary1882
25FOCHT, Benjamin Kurtz0.75RepublicanCenter6075PAmissionary1863
26SCHNEIDER, George John0.739130435OtherRight6875WImissionary1877
27SMITH, Frederick Cleveland0.73880597RepublicanRight7681OHlost1884
28RISK, Charles Francis0.736842105RepublicanCenter7476RIlost1897
29JOHNSON, Hiram Warren0.732394366RepublicanRight6579CAmissionary1866
30PAUL, Ronald Ernest0.728426396RepublicanRight94112TXsilent1935
31BUSHFIELD, Harlan John0.723404255RepublicanRight7880SDmissionary1882
32SCHWABE, George Blaine0.723404255RepublicanRight7982OKlost1886
33PATTERSON, Edward White0.72DemocratCenter7475KSlost1895
34CANNON, Raymond Joseph0.714285714DemocratLeft7375WIlost1894
35TOWNSEND, John Gillis, Jr.0.712328767RepublicanCenter7176DEmissionary1871
36SIMPSON, Milward Lee0.708661417RepublicanRight8889WYlost1897
37JENISON, Edward Halsey0.707317073RepublicanRight8082ILgreatest1907
38WHERRY, Kenneth Spicer0.706521739RepublicanRight7882NElost1892
39ABOUREZK, James George0.706484642DemocratLeft9295SDsilent1931
40KNUTSON, Harold0.705882353RepublicanRight6580MNmissionary1880
41HOFFMAN, Clare Eugene0.704797048RepublicanRight7487MImissionary1875
42VAIL, Richard Bernard0.703703704RepublicanCenter8082ILlost1895
43MASON, Noah Morgan0.702040816RepublicanRight7587ILmissionary1882
44LANGER, William0.694117647RepublicanRight7786NDlost1886
45KEM, James Preston0.693548387RepublicanCenter8082MOlost1890
46MAPES, Carl Edgar0.692307692RepublicanRight6376MImissionary1874
47BULOW, William John0.686956522DemocratRight7277SDmissionary1869
48SMITH, Wint0.685185185RepublicanRight8086KSlost1892
49SUMNER, Jessie0.682242991RepublicanRight7679ILlost1898
50THURSTON, Lloyd0.681818182RepublicanRight6975IAmissionary1880
51BOILEAU, Gerald John0.68OtherLeft7275WIlost1900
52DANAHER, John Anthony0.6796875RepublicanCenter7678CTlost1899
53HOFFMAN, Elmer Joseph0.675RepublicanRight8688ILlost1899
54RUTHERFORD, Albert Greig0.672727273RepublicanCenter7577PAmissionary1879
55EICHER, Edward Clayton0.666666667DemocratLeft7375IAmissionary1878
56McLEOD, Clarence John0.666666667RepublicanCenter6676MIlost1895
57MILLARD, Charles Dunsmore0.666666667RepublicanCenter7275NYmissionary1873
58WHITE, Dudley Allen0.666666667RepublicanCenter7576OHgreatest1901
59CLIPPINGER, Roy0.666666667RepublicanRight7980ILlost1886
60SANBORN, John Carfield0.666666667RepublicanCenter8081IDlost1885
61CAPPER, Arthur0.664921466RepublicanRight6680KSmissionary1865
62GROSS, Harold Royce0.664502165RepublicanRight8193IAlost1899
63JONES, Robert Franklin0.663793103RepublicanRight7680OHgreatest1907
64BRADLEY, Frederick Van Ness0.663461538RepublicanCenter7680MIlost1898
65WILLIS, Raymond Eugene0.6625RepublicanCenter7779INmissionary1875
66ALFORD, Thomas Dale0.660377358DemocratRight8687ARgreatest1916
67SHAFER, Paul Werntz0.66025641RepublicanCenter7583MIlost1893
68WELKER, Herman0.658823529RepublicanRight8284IDgreatest1906
69SAVAGE, Gus0.658119658DemocratLeft97102ILgreatest1925
70THOMAS, John0.656862745RepublicanRight7079IDmissionary1874
71CROCKETT, George William, Jr.0.654296875DemocratLeft96101MIgreatest1909
72ROCKEFELLER, Lewis Kirby0.651515152RepublicanRight7577NYmissionary1875
73WEAVER, James Howard0.651362984DemocratLeft9499ORgreatest1927
74JOHNSON, Anton Joseph0.651162791RepublicanRight7680ILmissionary1878
75LEMKE, William0.650943396RepublicanCenter7381NDmissionary1878
76TINKHAM, George Holden0.65060241RepublicanRight6477MAmissionary1870
77BUTLER, Hugh Alfred0.65034965RepublicanRight7783NEmissionary1878
78CRAWFORD, Fred Lewis0.650306748RepublicanRight7482MIlost1888
79JARRETT, Benjamin0.646153846RepublicanCenter7577PAmissionary1881
80ELLIS, Hubert Summers0.644067797RepublicanRight7880WVlost1887
81GOODWIN, Philip Arnold0.642857143RepublicanRight7375NYmissionary1882
82LA FOLLETTE, Robert Marion, Jr.0.642857143OtherRight6979WIlost1895
83MACY, William Kingsland0.642857143RepublicanCenter8081NYlost1889
84WHEELER, Burton Kendall0.641791045DemocratRight6879MTmissionary1882
85ALGER, Bruce Reynolds0.641221374RepublicanRight8488TXgreatest1918
86THILL, Lewis Dominic0.636363636RepublicanCenter7677WIgreatest1903
87HUGHES, Harold Everett0.633027523DemocratLeft9193IAgreatest1922
88CLEVENGER, Cliff0.631067961RepublicanRight7685OHlost1885
89WOODRUFF, Roy Orchard0.630952381RepublicanRight6382MImissionary1876
90McGILL, George0.62962963DemocratRight7175KSmissionary1879
91REED, Daniel Alden0.628440367RepublicanRight6686NYmissionary1875
92SHORT, Dewey Jackson0.628415301RepublicanRight7184MOlost1898
93BUFFETT, Howard Homan0.626865672RepublicanRight7882NEgreatest1903
94SILER, Eugene0.62601626RepublicanRight8488KYlost1900
95HILDEBRANDT, Fred Herman0.625DemocratLeft7375SDmissionary1874
96AMLIE, Thomas Ryum0.625OtherLeft7275WIlost1897
97HOFFMAN, Richard William0.625RepublicanCenter8184ILlost1893
98RARICK, John Richard0.625DemocratRight9093LAgreatest1924
99DWORSHAK, Henry Clarence0.621917808RepublicanRight7687IDlost1894
100SHORT, Don Levingston0.619047619RepublicanRight8688NDgreatest1903
101HAYES, Charles Arthur0.619047619DemocratLeft98102ILgreatest1918
102UTT, James Boyd0.615702479RepublicanRight8391CAlost1899
103WASHINGTON, Harold0.615384615DemocratLeft9798ILgreatest1922
104McNARY, Charles Linza0.614814815RepublicanRight6578ORmissionary1874
105OWENS, Major Robert Odell0.614314115DemocratLeft98109NYsilent1936
106JOHNS, Joshua Leroy0.614285714RepublicanCenter7677WImissionary1881
107GUYER, Ulysses Samuel0.613861386RepublicanRight6878KSmissionary1868
108BISHOP, Cecil William (Runt)0.612403101RepublicanRight7783ILlost1890
109ROBERTSON, Edward Vivian0.612244898RepublicanRight7880WYmissionary1881
110BATES, Jim0.612159329DemocratLeft98101CAsilent1941
111BRUCE, Donald Cogley0.611940299RepublicanRight8788INgreatest1921
112JONAS, Edgar Allan0.611111111RepublicanCenter8183ILlost1885
113JOHANSEN, August Edgar0.610294118RepublicanRight8488MIgreatest1905
114WILSON, George Allison0.608695652RepublicanRight7880IAlost1884
115WINTER, Thomas Daniel0.607142857RepublicanRight7679KSlost1896
116CONYERS, John, Jr.0.605724838DemocratLeft89115MIsilent1929
117SEGER, George Nicholas0.605263158RepublicanCenter6876NJmissionary1866
118BURTON, Sala Galante0.605263158DemocratLeft98100CAgreatest1925
119CLARK, David Worth0.60483871DemocratRight7478IDgreatest1902
120GRUENING, Ernest Henry0.604229607DemocratLeft8690AKlost1887
121McVEY, William Estus0.603174603RepublicanCenter8285ILlost1885
122WILLIAMS, John Bell0.60251046DemocratRight8090MSgreatest1918
123REVERCOMB, William Chapman0.602272727RepublicanRight7885WVlost1895
124CROWTHER, Frank0.6RepublicanCenter6677NYmissionary1870
125DONAHEY, Alvin Victor0.6DemocratRight7476OHmissionary1873
126SHEEHAN, Timothy Patrick0.6RepublicanCenter8285ILgreatest1909
127VAN PELT, William Kaiser0.597315436RepublicanRight8288WIgreatest1905
128ROBSION, John Marshall0.597122302RepublicanRight6680KYmissionary1873
129TRAFICANT, James A., Jr.0.597087379DemocratCenter99107OHsilent1941
130ARNOLD, Samuel Washington (Wat)0.593220339RepublicanRight7880MOmissionary1879
131ECTON, Zales Nelson0.593220339RepublicanRight8082MTlost1898
132DAVIS, James John0.591836735RepublicanRight7178PAmissionary1873
133O'KONSKI, Alvin Edward0.587628866RepublicanRight7892WIgreatest1904
134TOWNS, Edolphus0.584867076DemocratLeft98112NYsilent1934
135HAWKES, Albert Wahl0.581818182RepublicanCenter7880NJmissionary1878
136BEERMANN, Ralph Frederick0.581081081RepublicanRight8788NEgreatest1912
137DELLUMS, Ronald V.0.580310881DemocratLeft92105CAsilent1935
138KRUEGER, Otto0.58RepublicanRight8385NDlost1890
139YOUNGDAHL, Oscar Ferdinand0.579710145RepublicanCenter7677MNlost1893
140BOXER, Barbara0.579457364DemocratLeft98114CAsilent1940
141ASHBROOK, William Albert0.578947368DemocratCenter6076OHmissionary1867
142BLITCH, Iris Faircloth0.578947368DemocratRight8487GAgreatest1912
143CLARK, Joel Bennett0.577922078DemocratRight7278MOlost1890
144JOHNSTON, Olin DeWitt Talmadge0.577656676DemocratRight7989SClost1896
145DENHOLM, Frank Edward0.577464789DemocratLeft9293SDgreatest1923
146BROOKS, Charles Wayland0.577319588RepublicanCenter7680ILlost1897
147REED, Chauncey William0.57591623RepublicanCenter7484ILlost1890
148HULL, Merlin0.575418994RepublicanLeft7183WImissionary1870
149TAFT, Robert Alphonso0.574162679RepublicanCenter7683OHlost1889
150WILLIAMS, John James0.57385399RepublicanRight8091DEgreatest1904
151CHURCH, Ralph Edwin0.571428571RepublicanCenter7481ILlost1883
152LUCE, Robert0.571428571RepublicanRight6676MAmissionary1862
153POOL, Joe Richard0.571428571DemocratRight8890TXgreatest1911
154PROXMIRE, William0.571331058DemocratLeft85100WIgreatest1915
155WHEAT, Alan Dupree0.570642202DemocratLeft98103MOboomer1951
156SCHERER, Gordon Harry0.570093458RepublicanRight8387OHgreatest1906
157STEFAN, Karl0.569767442RepublicanRight7482NElost1884
158MILLER, George0.569105691DemocratLeft94113CAsilent1945
159REED, Clyde Martin0.568181818RepublicanRight7681KSmissionary1871
160DYMALLY, Mervyn Malcolm0.568181818DemocratLeft97102CAgreatest1926
161HALL, Katie Beatrice0.56779661DemocratLeft9798INsilent1938
162LELAND, George Thomas (Mickey)0.566765579DemocratLeft96101TXsilent1944
163MORRISON, Bruce Andrew0.566735113DemocratLeft98101CTsilent1944
164HARNESS, Forest Arthur0.566666667RepublicanCenter7680INlost1895
165HENDERSON, John Earl0.566666667RepublicanRight8486OHgreatest1917
166STARK, Fortney Hillman (Pete), Jr.0.565627951DemocratLeft93112CAsilent1931
167HOLMAN, Rufus Cecil0.564102564RepublicanRight7678ORmissionary1877
168O'HARA, Joseph Patrick0.563636364RepublicanRight7785MNlost1895
169WITHROW, Gardner Robert0.5625RepublicanCenter7286WIlost1892
170MITCHELL, Parren James0.561771562DemocratLeft9299MDgreatest1922
171SCHWABE, Max0.561403509RepublicanRight7880MOgreatest1905
172DeFAZIO, Peter Anthony0.561403509DemocratCenter100116ORboomer1947
173DOWDY, John Vernard0.560810811DemocratRight8392TXgreatest1912
174BIERMANN, Frederick Elliott0.56DemocratCenter7375IAlost1884
175HALL, Durward Gorham0.559386973RepublicanRight8792MOgreatest1910
176SCRIVNER, Errett Power0.556451613RepublicanCenter7885KSlost1898
177BYRD, Harry Flood0.55597723DemocratRight7389VAlost1887
178HASKELL, Floyd Kirk0.55511811DemocratCenter9395COgreatest1916
179BUCK, Clayton Douglass0.553191489RepublicanCenter7880DElost1890
180BURDICK, Usher Lloyd0.552941176RepublicanLeft7485NDmissionary1879
181THOMPSON, Ruth0.552631579RepublicanCenter8284MIlost1887
182PERKINS, Carl Christopher0.552311436DemocratLeft99102KYboomer1954
183SWEENEY, Martin Leonard0.552238806DemocratLeft7277OHlost1885
184GARCIA, Robert0.552197802DemocratLeft95101NYsilent1933
185GENTRY, Brady Preston0.551724138DemocratRight8384TXlost1896
186BUDGE, Hamer Harold0.550561798RepublicanRight8286IDgreatest1910
187KNOX, Victor Alfred0.549295775RepublicanRight8388MIlost1899
188CULKIN, Francis Dugan0.548780488RepublicanCenter7078NYmissionary1874
189JENSEN, Benton Franklin0.548275862RepublicanRight7688IAlost1892
190JOHNSON, Noble Jacob0.547826087RepublicanCenter6980INlost1887
191FREAR, Joseph Allen, Jr.0.547738693DemocratRight8186DEgreatest1903
192WEISS, Theodore S.0.546875DemocratLeft95102NYgreatest1927
193SCHROEDER, Patricia Scott0.546099291DemocratLeft93104COsilent1940
194RUSSO, Martin Anthony0.545632974DemocratLeft94102ILsilent1944
195KVALE, Paul John0.545454545OtherLeft7175MNlost1896
196HEIDINGER, James Vandaveer0.545454545RepublicanRight7779ILmissionary1882
197BUSBEY, Fred Ernst0.545454545RepublicanRight7883ILlost1895
198HATFIELD, Mark Odom0.543527631RepublicanCenter90104ORgreatest1922
199RYAN, Elmer James0.543478261DemocratLeft7476MNgreatest1907
200MOODY, Jim0.543396226DemocratLeft98102WIsilent1935
201SCHOEPPEL, Andrew Frank0.543378995RepublicanRight8187KSlost1894
202EVANS, Lane Allen0.542279412DemocratLeft98109ILboomer1951
203COFFEE, Harry Buffington0.541666667DemocratRight7477NElost1890
204FLETCHER, Thomas Brooks0.541666667DemocratRight6975OHmissionary1879
205SCHIFFLER, Andrew Charles0.541666667RepublicanCenter7678WVlost1889
206COLE, William Clay0.541666667RepublicanCenter7883MOlost1897
207BRUMBAUGH, David Emmert0.541666667RepublicanCenter7879PAlost1894
208ASHMORE, Robert Thomas0.541484716DemocratRight8390SCgreatest1904
209BRICKER, John William0.541401274RepublicanRight8085OHlost1893
210EARLY, Joseph Daniel0.540816327DemocratLeft94102MAsilent1933
211BREHM, Walter Ellsworth0.540540541RepublicanCenter7882OHlost1892
212KASTENMEIER, Robert William0.540114613DemocratLeft86101WIgreatest1924
213GILCHRIST, Fred Cramer0.54RepublicanRight7278IAmissionary1868
214MITCHELL, John Ridley0.538461538DemocratRight7275TNmissionary1877
215ANDERSEN, Herman Carl0.538167939RepublicanRight7687MNlost1897
216GEHRMANN, Bernard John0.537634409OtherLeft7477WImissionary1880
217FRANK, Barney0.5375DemocratLeft97112MAsilent1940
218WOLFENDEN, James0.537190083RepublicanCenter7079PAlost1889
219KINZER, John Roland0.535714286RepublicanCenter7179PAmissionary1874
220RANGEL, Charles B.0.53502627DemocratLeft92114NYsilent1930
221GROSS, Chester Heilman0.534883721RepublicanCenter7680PAlost1888
222ANDRESEN, August Herman0.534653465RepublicanRight6985MNlost1890
223NOLAN, Richard Michael0.534328358DemocratLeft94115MNsilent1943
224McGROARTY, John Steven0.533333333DemocratCenter7475CAmissionary1862
225CLAY, William Lacy, Sr.0.532951289DemocratLeft91106MOsilent1931
226ROBERTSON, Charles Raymond0.532258065RepublicanRight7780NDlost1889
227TUCK, William Munford0.53164557DemocratRight8390VAlost1896
228MURRAY, Reid Fred0.531468531RepublicanCenter7682WIlost1887
229LEWIS, John R.0.530821918DemocratLeft100116GAsilent1940
230DITTER, John William0.530612245RepublicanCenter7378PAlost1888
231CONLAN, John Bertrand0.530612245RepublicanRight9394AZsilent1930
232BEDELL, Berkley Warren0.53030303DemocratLeft9499IAgreatest1921
233REINECKE, Edwin0.530120482RepublicanCenter8991CAgreatest1924
234JOHNSON, James Paul (Jim)0.529953917RepublicanCenter9396COsilent1930
235O'NEAL, Maston Emmett, Jr.0.528455285DemocratRight8991GAgreatest1907
236BURTON, John Lowell0.528436019DemocratLeft9397CAsilent1932
237BATTIN, James Franklin0.528301887RepublicanRight8791MTgreatest1925
238BUCKLER, Richard Thompson0.527027027OtherLeft7477MNmissionary1865
239EAGLETON, Thomas Francis0.526980482DemocratCenter9199MOsilent1929
240SIKORSKI, Gerald Edward0.526703499DemocratLeft98102MNboomer1948
241PETTENGILL, Samuel Barrett0.526315789DemocratRight7275INlost1886
242GRIFFITHS, Percy Wilfred0.526315789RepublicanCenter7880OHlost1893
243MILLER, Arthur Lewis0.525925926RepublicanRight7885NElost1892
244DURBIN, Richard Joseph0.525735294DemocratLeft98116ILsilent1944
245WILLIAMS, John Patrick0.525557012DemocratLeft96104MTsilent1937
246ANDERSON, Charles Arthur0.525DemocratCenter7576MOlost1899
247COLLINS, Cardiss0.524822695DemocratLeft93104ILsilent1931
248BEAMER, John Valentine0.524590164RepublicanCenter8285INlost1896
249LANDIS, Gerald Wayne0.524193548RepublicanCenter7680INlost1895
250MAVERICK, Fontaine Maury0.523809524DemocratLeft7475TXlost1895
251NELSON, Charles Pembroke0.523809524RepublicanCenter8184MEgreatest1907
252STRATTON, William Grant0.522727273RepublicanCenter7780ILgreatest1914
253HARKIN, Thomas Richard (Tom)0.522641509DemocratLeft94113IAsilent1939
254STOKES, Louis0.522077922DemocratLeft91105OHgreatest1925
255ACKERMAN, Gary Leonard0.521821632DemocratLeft98112NYsilent1942
256KENNEY, Edward Aloysius0.52173913DemocratLeft7375NJlost1884
257PHILLIPS, Dayton Edward0.52173913RepublicanCenter8081TNgreatest1910
258WYDEN, Ronald Lee0.521472393DemocratLeft97116ORboomer1949
259BROWN, Clarence J.0.521311475RepublicanCenter7689OHlost1893
260LIPSCOMB, Glenard Paul0.520325203RepublicanCenter8391CAgreatest1915
261MOFFETT, Anthony John, Jr. (Toby)0.520255864DemocratLeft9497CTsilent1944
262GWYNNE, John Williams0.52RepublicanRight7480IAlost1889
263SCHADEBERG, Henry Carl0.52RepublicanCenter8791WIgreatest1913
264ROUDEBUSH, Richard Lowell0.519774011RepublicanRight8791INgreatest1918
265STUDDS, Gerry Eastman0.519332162DemocratLeft93104MAsilent1937
266COLLINS, George Washington0.519230769DemocratLeft9192ILgreatest1925
267ALLEN, Leo Elwood0.519148936RepublicanCenter7386ILlost1898
268WHEAT, William Howard0.518987342RepublicanCenter7678ILmissionary1879
269HARRINGTON, Michael Joseph0.516883117DemocratLeft9195MAsilent1936
270RUNNELS, Harold Lowell0.51627907DemocratRight9296NMgreatest1924
271NICHOLSON, Donald William0.516129032RepublicanRight8085MAlost1888
272CLARK, Richard Clarence (Dick)0.516025641DemocratLeft9395IAsilent1928
273CHISHOLM, Shirley Anita0.514851485DemocratLeft9197NYgreatest1924
274SCHMITZ, John George0.514285714RepublicanRight9192CAsilent1930
275LOWRY, Michael Edward0.514285714DemocratLeft96100WAsilent1939
276HUNGATE, William Leonard0.514044944DemocratCenter8994MOgreatest1922
277AuCOIN, Les0.513569937DemocratLeft94102ORsilent1942
278WHARTON, James Ernest0.513513514RepublicanCenter8288NYlost1899
279MRAZEK, Robert Jan0.513461538DemocratLeft98102NYsilent1945
280ROGERS, Walter Edward0.512437811DemocratRight8289TXgreatest1908
281SEIBERLING, John Frederick0.512195122DemocratLeft9299OHgreatest1918
282RAHALL, Nick Joe, II0.511827957DemocratCenter95113WVboomer1949
283MELCHER, John0.511086475DemocratCenter91100MTgreatest1924
284GRAVEL, Maurice Robert (Mike)0.510891089DemocratCenter9196AKsilent1930
285BENNETT, John Bonifas0.510204082RepublicanRight7888MIgreatest1904
286STAGGERS, Harley Orrin, Jr.0.510166359DemocratCenter98102WVboomer1951
287JONTZ, James Prather0.510067114DemocratLeft100102INboomer1951
288MARKEY, Edward John0.509493671DemocratLeft95116MAboomer1946
289BERRY, Ellis Yarnal0.50929368RepublicanRight8291SDgreatest1902
290BADILLO, Herman0.50929368DemocratLeft9295NYsilent1929
291HARRISON, Robert Dinsmore0.50877193RepublicanRight8285NElost1897
292ATKINS, Chester Greenough0.5075DemocratLeft99102MAboomer1948
293HARRISON, William Henry0.507352941RepublicanRight8290WYlost1896
294PENNY, Timothy Joseph0.50729927DemocratLeft98103MNboomer1951
295ROY, William Robert0.506944444DemocratCenter9293KSgreatest1926
296HALEY, James Andrew0.506692161DemocratRight8394FLlost1899
297WATSON, Albert William0.506493506RepublicanRight8889SCgreatest1922
298WATSON, Albert William0.506493506RepublicanRight9091SCgreatest1922
299LEWIS, Earl Ramage0.506024096RepublicanCenter7680OHlost1887
300McGREGOR, J. Harry0.505434783RepublicanCenter7685OHlost1896
301TOBEY, Charles William0.505154639RepublicanCenter7383NHmissionary1880
302MOORE, Arch Alfred, Jr.0.504807692RepublicanCenter8590WVgreatest1923
303DORGAN, Byron Leslie0.503154574DemocratCenter97111NDsilent1942
304CRANSTON, Alan0.50295858DemocratLeft91102CAgreatest1914
305KAPTUR, Marcia Carolyn (Marcy)0.502835539DemocratCenter98116OHboomer1946
306GRAY, William Herbert, III0.50273224DemocratLeft96102PAsilent1941
307BRUCE, Terry Lee0.502427184DemocratLeft99102ILsilent1944
308REES, Edward Herbert0.50209205RepublicanCenter7586KSlost1886
309JACOBS, Andrew, Jr.0.502061006DemocratLeft89104INsilent1932
310ASHBROOK, John Milan0.50132626RepublicanRight8797OHsilent1928
311FARLEY, James Indus0.5DemocratCenter7375INmissionary1871
312GRAY, Joseph Anthony0.5DemocratLeft7475PAlost1884
313TAYLOR, John Clarence0.5DemocratRight7375SClost1890
314GILLIE, George W.0.5RepublicanCenter7680INmissionary1880
315SPRINGER, Raymond Smiley0.5RepublicanCenter7680INmissionary1882
316RIZLEY, Ross0.5RepublicanRight7780OKlost1892
317SUTTON, James Patrick0.5DemocratRight8183TNgreatest1915
318RICHMOND, Frederick William0.498886414DemocratLeft9497NYgreatest1923
319VENTO, Bruce Frank0.498429319DemocratLeft95106MNsilent1940
320METZENBAUM, Howard Morton0.498233216DemocratLeft93103OHgreatest1917
321BERMAN, Howard Lawrence0.498098859DemocratLeft98112CAsilent1941
322DONDERO, George Anthony0.497512438RepublicanCenter7384MIlost1883
323BARRETT, Frank Aloysius0.497206704RepublicanCenter7885WYlost1892
324NELSON, Gaylord Anton0.496909765DemocratLeft8896WIgreatest1916
325KLECZKA, Gerald Daniel0.496644295DemocratLeft98108WIsilent1943
326EDWARDS, William Donlon (Don)0.496263079DemocratLeft88103CAgreatest1915
327BONIOR, David Edward0.496256684DemocratLeft95107MIsilent1945
328JOHNSON, Edwin Carl0.495689655DemocratRight7583COlost1884
329SCHERLE, William Joseph0.495412844RepublicanRight9093IAgreatest1923
330OBERSTAR, James Louis0.495274102DemocratLeft94111MNsilent1934
331LEVINE, Meldon Edises0.495183044DemocratLeft98102CAsilent1943
332BEILENSON, Anthony Charles0.495071194DemocratLeft95104CAsilent1932
333SMITH, Lawrence Henry0.493055556RepublicanRight7785WIlost1892
334EDGAR, Robert William0.492997199DemocratLeft9499PAsilent1943
335FLAKE, Floyd Harold0.492366412DemocratLeft100105NYsilent1945
336MOTTL, Ronald Milton0.491803279DemocratCenter9497OHsilent1934
337WILSON, Earl0.49122807RepublicanCenter7788INgreatest1906
338TORRES, Esteban Edward0.490774908DemocratCenter98105CAsilent1930
339MURPHY, Austin John0.490730643DemocratLeft95103PAgreatest1927
340SMITH, H. Allen0.490384615RepublicanRight8592CAgreatest1909
341OLIVER, James Churchill0.489795918DemocratCenter7586MElost1895
342BURDICK, Quentin Northrup0.489583333DemocratCenter86102NDgreatest1908
343McCARRAN, Patrick Anthony (Pat)0.488888889DemocratRight7383NVmissionary1876
344WALGREN, Douglas0.48839779DemocratLeft95101PAsilent1940
345HOLTZMAN, Elizabeth0.488322718DemocratLeft9396NYsilent1941
346McDOWELL, John Ralph0.487804878RepublicanCenter7680PAgreatest1902
347GRANT, Robert Allen0.487603306RepublicanCenter7680INgreatest1905
348BIDEN, Joseph Robinette, Jr.0.487150838DemocratLeft93111DEsilent1942
349ALEXANDER, Hugh Quincy0.486956522DemocratRight8387NCgreatest1911
350MORRIS, Toby0.486842105DemocratRight8086OKlost1899
351MART�NEZ, Matthew G.0.486742424RepublicanCenter97106CAsilent1929
352SCHUMER, Charles Ellis (Chuck)0.486697966DemocratLeft97116NYboomer1950
353LEHMAN, Richard Henry0.486641221DemocratLeft98103CAboomer1948
354BOSCO, Douglas Harry0.486021505DemocratLeft98101CAboomer1946
355LONG, Speedy Oteria0.485915493DemocratRight8992LAsilent1928
356DORN, William Jennings Bryan0.485781991DemocratRight8093SCgreatest1916
357VANDENBERG, Arthur Hendrick0.485714286RepublicanCenter7082MIlost1884
358FOREMAN, Edgar Franklin0.485714286RepublicanRight8891TXsilent1933
359FOREMAN, Edgar Franklin0.485714286RepublicanRight8891NMsilent1933
360WALSH, David Ignatius0.48502994DemocratCenter6679MAmissionary1872
361ABZUG, Bella Savitzky0.484978541DemocratLeft9294NYgreatest1920
362PANETTA, Leon Edward0.48491155DemocratLeft95103CAsilent1938
363ECKART, Dennis Edward0.48470948DemocratLeft97102OHboomer1950
364BARING, Walter Stephan, Jr.0.484429066DemocratRight8192NVgreatest1911
365SABO, Martin Olav0.484316186DemocratLeft96109MNsilent1938
366ABERNETHY, Thomas Gerstle0.484261501DemocratRight7892MSgreatest1903
367HERTEL, Dennis Mark0.483821263DemocratLeft97102MIboomer1948
368CAPEHART, Homer Earl0.482889734RepublicanCenter7987INlost1897
369DONNELLY, Brian Joseph0.482119205DemocratLeft96102MAboomer1946
370KING, Karl Clarence0.481481481RepublicanCenter8284PAlost1897
371KOSTMAYER, Peter Houston0.481308411DemocratLeft95102PAboomer1946
372HARVEY, Ralph0.481283422RepublicanCenter8089INgreatest1901
373KILDEE, Dale Edward0.481103166DemocratCenter95112MIsilent1929
374HAND, Thomas Millet0.480519481RepublicanCenter7984NJgreatest1902
375POPE, James Pinckney0.48DemocratRight7375IDlost1884
376WOLPE, Howard Eliot, III0.479503106DemocratLeft96102MIsilent1939
377ROYBAL, Edward R.0.479004666DemocratLeft88102CAgreatest1916
378TREADWAY, Allen Towner0.478723404RepublicanCenter6378MAmissionary1867
379WINSTEAD, William Arthur0.478672986DemocratRight7888MSgreatest1904
380KEYS, Martha Elizabeth0.478431373DemocratLeft9495KSsilent1930
381FEIGHAN, Edward Farrell0.47834275DemocratLeft98102OHboomer1947
382HAGAN, George Elliott0.478070175DemocratRight8792GAgreatest1916
383OBEY, David Ross0.47804878DemocratLeft91111WIsilent1938
384CARR, Milton Robert (Bob)0.477693145DemocratLeft94103MIsilent1943
385STUCKEY, Williamson Sylvester, Jr.0.47761194DemocratRight9094GAsilent1935
386McSWEEN, Harold Barnett0.476190476DemocratRight8687LAgreatest1926
387LANDGREBE, Earl Fredrick0.475903614RepublicanRight9193INgreatest1916
388DIXON, Julian Carey0.474285714DemocratLeft96107CAsilent1934
389LAUTENBERG, Frank Raleigh0.474285714DemocratLeft98113NJgreatest1924
390LEWIS, David John0.473684211DemocratCenter6275MDmissionary1869
391ENGEL, Albert Joseph0.473333333RepublicanCenter7481MIlost1888
392SHANNON, James Michael0.472677596DemocratLeft9698MAboomer1952
393SCHNEIDER, Claudine0.472081218RepublicanLeft97101RIboomer1947
394HUTCHINSON, J. Edward0.472019465RepublicanCenter8894MIgreatest1914
395APPLEGATE, Douglas Earl0.471922246DemocratCenter95103OHsilent1928
396GEJDENSON, Samuel0.471755725DemocratLeft97106CTboomer1948
397CURTIS, Thomas Bradford0.470852018RepublicanRight8290MOgreatest1911
398JOHNSON, William Ward0.470588235RepublicanRight7778CAlost1892
399OAKAR, Mary Rose0.47DemocratCenter95102OHsilent1940
400MAGUIRE, Gene Andrew0.469656992DemocratLeft9496NJsilent1939
401MFUME, Kweisi0.469387755DemocratLeft100116MDboomer1948
402KENNEDY, Joseph Patrick, II0.469387755DemocratLeft100105MAboomer1952
403FOGLIETTA, Thomas Michael0.469320066DemocratLeft97105PAsilent1928
404FORD, Harold Eugene0.469318182DemocratLeft94104TNsilent1945
405JENKINS, Thomas Albert0.469298246RepublicanCenter6985OHmissionary1880
406HIESTAND, Edgar Willard0.469026549RepublicanCenter8387CAlost1888
407DOUGLAS, Fred James0.46835443RepublicanCenter7578NYmissionary1869
408KEEFE, Frank Bateman0.468253968RepublicanCenter7681WIlost1887
409VELDE, Harold Himmel0.468085106RepublicanCenter8184ILgreatest1910
410ALLEN, Clifford Robertson0.468085106DemocratCenter9495TNgreatest1912
411COLLINS, James Mitchell0.467438495RepublicanRight9097TXgreatest1916
412STEIGER, Sam0.467391304RepublicanRight9094AZsilent1929
413VISCLOSKY, Peter0.467312349DemocratCenter99116INboomer1949
414STEVENSON, Adlai Ewing III0.466793169DemocratLeft9196ILsilent1930
415CUNNINGHAM, Glenn Clarence0.466386555RepublicanCenter8591NEgreatest1912
416McGOVERN, George Stanley0.466242038DemocratLeft8596SDgreatest1922
417McCLOSKEY, Francis Xavier0.466165414DemocratCenter98103INsilent1939
418LAIRD, Melvin Robert0.466101695RepublicanCenter8391WIgreatest1922
419EVANS, David Walter0.465979381DemocratCenter9497INboomer1946
420REID, Charlotte Thompson0.465968586RepublicanCenter8892ILgreatest1913
421BLOUIN, Michael Thomas0.465863454DemocratLeft9495IAsilent1945
422TSONGAS, Paul Efthemios0.465811966DemocratLeft9498MAsilent1941
423ADAIR, Edwin Ross0.465703971RepublicanCenter8291INgreatest1907
424MIKVA, Abner Joseph0.465011287DemocratLeft9196ILgreatest1926
425SCOTT, Ralph James0.464788732DemocratRight8589NCgreatest1905
426RIEGLE, Donald Wayne, Jr.0.464419476DemocratLeft9093MIsilent1938
427RIEGLE, Donald Wayne, Jr.0.464419476DemocratLeft94103MIsilent1938
428DAY, Stephen Albion0.464285714RepublicanCenter7778ILmissionary1882
429MEYER, Herbert Alton0.464285714RepublicanRight8081KSlost1886
430BIBLE, Alan Harvey0.464237517DemocratRight8393NVgreatest1909
431BRENNAN, Joseph Edward0.464DemocratLeft100101MEsilent1934
432LENNON, Alton Asa0.463949843DemocratRight8392NCgreatest1906
433MAAS, Melvin Joseph0.463917526RepublicanCenter7078MNlost1898
434SIMPSON, Sidney Elmer0.463768116RepublicanRight7885ILlost1894
435MacKAY, Kenneth Hood, Jr. (Buddy)0.46373057DemocratLeft98100FLsilent1933
436VOLKMER, Harold Lee0.462732919DemocratCenter95104MOsilent1931
437DANIEL, Marion Price0.462686567DemocratRight8385TXgreatest1910
438MITCHELL, George John0.462686567DemocratLeft96103MEsilent1933
439PELOSI, Nancy0.4625DemocratLeft100116CAsilent1940
440WALKER, E. S. Johnny0.462365591DemocratRight8990NMgreatest1911
441CLANCY, Donald Daniel0.462102689RepublicanCenter8794OHgreatest1921
442DASCHLE, Thomas Andrew0.461832061DemocratCenter96108SDboomer1947
443DEVINE, Samuel Leeper0.461640212RepublicanRight8696OHgreatest1915
444FRIES, Frank William0.461538462DemocratLeft7576ILlost1893
445CLUETT, Ernest Harold0.461538462RepublicanRight7577NYmissionary1874
446CONRAD, Kent0.461290323DemocratRight100112NDboomer1948
447FLORIO, James Joseph0.461181924DemocratLeft94101NJsilent1937
448MIKULSKI, Barbara Ann0.461134454DemocratLeft95114MDsilent1936
449PHILLIPS, John0.460784314RepublicanCenter7884CAlost1887
450BENJAMIN, Adam, Jr.0.45971564DemocratCenter9597INsilent1935
451LEAHY, Patrick Joseph0.459668508DemocratLeft94116VTsilent1940
452BOSCH, Albert Henry0.459459459RepublicanCenter8386NYgreatest1908
453KOLTER, Joseph Paul0.459405941DemocratCenter98102PAgreatest1926
454LEVIN, Sander Martin0.458715596DemocratLeft98115MIsilent1931
455BAUCUS, Max Sieben0.458464774DemocratCenter94113MTsilent1941
456LEVIN, Carl0.458390177DemocratLeft96113MIsilent1934
457LAMBETH, John Walter0.458333333DemocratRight7275NClost1896
458ELSTON, Charles Henry0.458333333RepublicanCenter7682OHlost1891
459OTTINGER, Richard Lawrence0.457956016DemocratLeft8998NYsilent1929
460RUSSELL, Richard Brevard, Jr.0.457399103DemocratRight7292GAlost1897
461BROWN, Charles Harrison0.456521739DemocratRight8586MOgreatest1920
462PEASE, Donald James0.456431535DemocratLeft95102OHsilent1931
463McDONALD, Lawrence Patton0.456171735DemocratRight9498GAsilent1935
464HART, Gary Warren0.455373406DemocratCenter9499COsilent1936
465SNYDER, Marion Gene0.454636092RepublicanRight8899KYsilent1928
466McCOWEN, Edward Oscar0.454545455RepublicanCenter7880OHmissionary1877
467ICHORD, Richard Howard, II0.454289733DemocratRight8796MOgreatest1926
468ROUSSELOT, John Harbin0.453717754RepublicanRight8797CAgreatest1927
469D'EWART, Wesley Abner0.453125RepublicanRight7983MTlost1889
470CASE, Francis Higbee0.452991453RepublicanRight7587SDlost1896
471BOUCHER, Frederick C.0.452611219DemocratCenter98111VAboomer1946
472LEACH, James Albert Smith0.45245559RepublicanCenter95109IAsilent1942
473DOWNEY, Thomas Joseph0.452358037DemocratLeft94102NYboomer1949
474BURTON, Laurence Junior0.451851852RepublicanRight8891UTgreatest1926
475WOLCOTT, Jesse Paine0.45177665RepublicanCenter7284MIlost1893
476BRODHEAD, William McNulty0.451676529DemocratLeft9497MIsilent1941
477COYNE, William Joseph0.451162791DemocratLeft97107PAsilent1936
478HARSHA, William Howard0.450842697RepublicanRight8796OHgreatest1921
479DRINAN, Robert Frederick0.45045045DemocratLeft9296MAgreatest1920
480COELHO, Tony0.450393701DemocratCenter96101CAsilent1942
481BRYANT, John Wiley0.450097847DemocratCenter98104TXboomer1947
482DOCKWEILER, John Francis0.45DemocratLeft7375CAlost1895
483REILLY, Michael Kieran0.45DemocratLeft6375WImissionary1869
484STEIWER, Frederick0.45RepublicanRight7075ORlost1883
485TACKETT, Boyd Anderson0.45DemocratRight8182ARgreatest1911
486WASHINGTON, Craig Anthony0.45DemocratLeft101103TXsilent1941
487SCOTT, William Lloyd0.449308756RepublicanRight9095VAgreatest1915
488HANSEN, George Vernon0.449275362RepublicanRight8998IDsilent1930
489PAYNE, Donald Milford0.449275362DemocratLeft101112NJsilent1934
490LOVRE, Harold Orrin0.448979592RepublicanRight8184SDgreatest1904
491WEAVER, Phillip Hart0.448979592RepublicanRight8487NEgreatest1919
492HOEVEN, Charles Bernard0.448430493RepublicanRight7888IAlost1895
493BETTS, Jackson Edward0.448275862RepublicanCenter8292OHgreatest1904
494CHURCH, Marguerite Stitt0.447761194RepublicanCenter8287ILlost1892
495WATKINS, George Robert0.447619048RepublicanRight8991PAgreatest1902
496SATTERFIELD, David Edward, III0.447521866DemocratRight8996VAgreatest1920
497CRUMPACKER, Shepard J., Jr.0.447368421RepublicanCenter8284INgreatest1917
498BORSKI, Robert Anthony, Jr.0.447319778DemocratCenter98107PAboomer1948
499METCALFE, Ralph Harold0.447204969DemocratLeft9295ILgreatest1910
500WHITENER, Basil Lee0.447115385DemocratRight8590NCgreatest1915
501O'DAY, Caroline Love Goodwin0.446428571DemocratLeft7477NYmissionary1875
502ABBITT, Watkins Moorman0.446376812DemocratRight8092VAgreatest1908
503REECE, Brazilla Carroll0.446153846RepublicanRight6787TNlost1889
504BOW, Frank Townsend0.446107784RepublicanCenter8292OHgreatest1901
505CLAWSON, Delwin Morgan0.446028513RepublicanRight8895CAgreatest1914
506CARTER, Albert Edward0.445544554RepublicanCenter6978CAmissionary1881
507WAXMAN, Henry Arnold0.444906445DemocratLeft94113CAsilent1939
508KENNELLY, Barbara Bailey0.444821732DemocratLeft97105CTsilent1936
509LAMNECK, Arthur Philip0.444444444DemocratRight7275OHmissionary1880
510SHUFORD, George Adams0.444444444DemocratRight8385NClost1895
511FLYNT, John James, Jr.0.444073456DemocratRight8495GAgreatest1914
512PRICE, Robert Dale0.443925234RepublicanRight9093TXgreatest1927
513WISE, Robert Ellsworth, Jr.0.443830571DemocratCenter98106WVboomer1948
514GIFFORD, Charles Laceille0.443396226RepublicanCenter6780MAmissionary1871
515COLLIER, Harold Reginald0.443005181RepublicanCenter8593ILgreatest1915
516MORSE, Wayne Lyman0.442965779DemocratLeft7982ORlost1900
517MORSE, Wayne Lyman0.442965779DemocratLeft8390ORlost1900
518KERRY, John Forbes0.442176871DemocratLeft99113MAsilent1943
519HARTKE, Rupert Vance0.442155309DemocratCenter8694INgreatest1919
520LONG, George Shannon0.441860465DemocratRight8385LAlost1883
521TALMADGE, Herman Eugene0.441629956DemocratRight8596GAgreatest1913
522CURTIS, Carl Thomas0.441499086RepublicanCenter7695NEgreatest1905
523MINETA, Norman Y.0.441233141DemocratLeft94104CAsilent1931
524EVANS, Marcellus Hugh0.44DemocratLeft7476NYlost1884
525BUMPERS, Dale0.439635535DemocratCenter94105ARgreatest1925
526GAYDOS, Joseph Matthew0.438963211DemocratCenter91102PAgreatest1926
527JOHNSON, Timothy Peter (Tim)0.43877551DemocratCenter100113SDboomer1946
528BENNETT, Marion Tinsley0.438596491RepublicanRight7880MOgreatest1914
529BROWN, George Edward, Jr.0.438202247DemocratLeft88106CAgreatest1920
530JORDAN, Benjamin Everett0.438095238DemocratRight8592NClost1896
531PRYOR, David Hampton0.437810945DemocratRight89104ARsilent1934
532SAUTHOFF, Harry0.4375OtherLeft7478WImissionary1879
533BARTON, Bruce0.4375RepublicanCenter7576NYlost1886
534RYAN, Leo Joseph0.437299035DemocratCenter9396CAgreatest1925
535VURSELL, Charles Wesley0.437037037RepublicanCenter7885ILmissionary1881
536TRAXLER, Jerome Bob0.43670265DemocratCenter93102MIsilent1931
537LUNDINE, Stanley Nelson0.436597111DemocratLeft9499NYsilent1939
538SCHEUER, James Haas0.436454849DemocratLeft89102NYgreatest1920
539JENKS, Arthur Byron0.436363636RepublicanCenter7577NHmissionary1866
540BELCHER, Page Henry0.436363636RepublicanRight8292OKlost1899
541ADAMS, Alva Blanchard0.435897436DemocratCenter6877COmissionary1875
542CORNELL, Robert John0.435797665DemocratLeft9495WIgreatest1919
543McCULLOCH, William Moore0.435294118RepublicanCenter8092OHgreatest1901
544HEMPHILL, Robert Witherspoon0.435185185DemocratRight8588SCgreatest1915
545WEARIN, Otha Donner0.434782609DemocratCenter7375IAgreatest1903
546WIRTH, Timothy E.0.434782609DemocratLeft94102COsilent1939
547TAUKE, Thomas Joseph0.434370771RepublicanCenter96101IAboomer1950
548HALL, Tony Patrick0.434262948DemocratCenter96107OHsilent1942
549HECHLER, Kenneth William0.434237996DemocratLeft8694WVgreatest1914
550KENNEDY, Edward Moore (Ted)0.433779762DemocratLeft88111MAsilent1932
551KANJORSKI, Paul E.0.433414044DemocratCenter99111PAsilent1937
552KITCHIN, Alvin Paul0.433333333DemocratRight8587NCgreatest1908
553WHITE, Compton Ignatius0.432989691DemocratCenter7381IDmissionary1877
554RODGERS, Robert Lewis0.432432432RepublicanCenter7679PAmissionary1875
555BARNES, Michael Darr0.432270916DemocratLeft9699MDsilent1943
556MARTIN, David Thomas0.432024169RepublicanRight8793NEgreatest1907
557ROCKEFELLER, John Davison IV (Jay)0.43187067DemocratCenter99113WVsilent1937
558SARBANES, Paul Spyros0.431578947DemocratLeft92109MDsilent1933
559TORRICELLI, Robert Guy0.43129771DemocratLeft98107NJboomer1951
560OLIN, James R.0.431192661DemocratCenter98102VAgreatest1920
561SMITH, Lawrence Jack0.430769231DemocratCenter98102FLsilent1941
562GOODLING, George Atlee0.430463576RepublicanRight8793PAlost1896
563BRADLEY, William Warren (Bill)0.430416069DemocratLeft96104NJsilent1943
564EVANS, Thomas Cooper0.43019943RepublicanCenter9799IAgreatest1924
565DWYER, Bernard James0.430124224DemocratCenter97102NJgreatest1921
566PELL, Claiborne de Borda0.429784455DemocratLeft87104RIgreatest1918
567BURTON, Phillip0.429708223DemocratLeft8898CAgreatest1926
568McCARTHY, Joseph Raymond0.4296875RepublicanRight8085WIgreatest1908
569KELLY, Richard0.429648241RepublicanRight9496FLgreatest1924
570LEHMAN, William0.428964253DemocratLeft93102FLgreatest1913
571DEEN, Braswell Drue0.428571429DemocratRight7375GAlost1893
572GRAHAM, Louis Edward0.428571429RepublicanCenter7683PAmissionary1880
573JONES, Woodrow Wilson0.428571429DemocratRight8184NCgreatest1914
574BENTLEY, Alvin Morell0.428571429RepublicanCenter8386MIgreatest1918
575NYGAARD, Hjalmar Carl0.428571429RepublicanCenter8788NDgreatest1906
576MOAKLEY, John Joseph0.427927928DemocratLeft93107MAgreatest1927
577BREWSTER, Ralph Owen0.427745665RepublicanCenter7482MElost1888
578SWIFT, Allan Byron0.4275DemocratCenter96103WAsilent1935
579MATSUI, Robert T.0.426751592DemocratLeft96108CAsilent1941
580BYRON, Goodloe Edgar0.426395939DemocratRight9295MDsilent1929
581THOMPSON, Theo Ashton0.426086957DemocratRight8389LAgreatest1916
582BRAY, William Gilmer0.426008969RepublicanRight8293INgreatest1903
583RATCHFORD, William Richard0.425587467DemocratLeft9698CTsilent1934
584MANTON, Thomas J.0.425316456DemocratCenter99105NYsilent1932
585CAMP, John Newbold Happy0.425149701RepublicanRight9193OKgreatest1908
586HUGHES, William John0.424880383DemocratLeft94103NJsilent1932
587JONKMAN, Bartel John0.424778761RepublicanCenter7680MIlost1884
588KREBS, John Hans0.424710425DemocratLeft9495CAgreatest1926
589SLATTERY, James Charles0.424074074DemocratLeft98103KSboomer1948
590CRANE, Daniel Bever0.424RepublicanRight9698ILsilent1936
591TALLE, Henry Oscar0.423809524RepublicanCenter7685IAlost1892
592DAVIS, James Curran0.423611111DemocratRight8087GAlost1895
593SASSER, James Ralph0.423514539DemocratRight95103TNsilent1936
594ZWACH, John Matthew0.423423423RepublicanCenter9093MNgreatest1907
595HAWKINS, Augustus Freeman (Gus)0.423214286DemocratLeft88101CAgreatest1907
596FORD, William David0.422791082DemocratLeft89103MIgreatest1927
597BONKER, Don Leroy0.422403734DemocratLeft94100WAsilent1937
598JORDAN, Leonard Beck (Len)0.422222222RepublicanCenter8792IDlost1899
599RUTHERFORD, J. T.0.422018349DemocratRight8487TXgreatest1921
600WEICHEL, Alvin F.0.421686747RepublicanCenter7883OHlost1891
601MOYNIHAN, Daniel Patrick0.421518987DemocratLeft95106NYgreatest1927
602KOCH, Edward Irving0.421212121DemocratLeft9195NYgreatest1924
603ENGLEBRIGHT, Harry Lane0.421052632RepublicanCenter6978CAlost1884
604SCOTT, Byron Nicholson0.421052632DemocratLeft7475CAgreatest1903
605GINGERY, Don0.421052632DemocratCenter7475PAlost1884
606McCLELLAN, John Little0.420320856DemocratRight7495ARlost1896
607GAVIN, Leon Harry0.419512195RepublicanCenter7888PAlost1893
608MAVROULES, Nicholas James0.41943734DemocratLeft96102MAsilent1929
609BROWNSON, Charles Bruce0.419354839RepublicanCenter8285INgreatest1914
610ALBOSTA, Donald Joseph0.419354839DemocratCenter9698MIgreatest1925
611ESPY, Alphonso Michael (Mike)0.419014085DemocratCenter100103MSboomer1953
612SAYLOR, John Phillips0.418918919RepublicanCenter8193PAgreatest1908
613GINN, Ronald Bryan (Bo)0.418604651DemocratRight9397GAsilent1934
614BONE, Homer Truett0.418181818DemocratRight7378WAlost1883
615SENSENBRENNER, Frank James, Jr.0.417737789RepublicanRight96116WIsilent1943
616CARPER, Thomas Richard0.417582418DemocratLeft98116DEboomer1947
617NAGLE, David Ray0.417508418DemocratLeft100102IAsilent1943
618CARDIN, Benjamin Louis0.417508418DemocratLeft100116MDsilent1943
619JENRETTE, John Wilson, Jr.0.417366947DemocratRight9496SCsilent1936
620DODD, Christopher John0.416753927DemocratLeft94111CTsilent1944
621THOMPSON, Chester Charles0.416666667DemocratCenter7375ILlost1893
622PITTENGER, William Alvin0.416666667RepublicanCenter7179MNlost1885
623BACON, Robert Low0.416666667RepublicanCenter6875NYlost1884
624CAIN, Harry Pulliam0.416666667RepublicanCenter8082WAgreatest1906
625JONES, Walter Beaman, Sr.0.416523236DemocratRight89102NCgreatest1913
626SYNAR, Michael Lynn0.41625DemocratLeft96103OKboomer1950
627THOMSON, Edwin Keith0.415384615RepublicanRight8486WYgreatest1919
628NOWAK, Henry James0.415384615DemocratLeft94102NYsilent1935
629GEPHARDT, Richard Andrew0.415224913DemocratCenter95108MOsilent1941
630BAUMAN, Robert Edmund0.414686825RepublicanRight9396MDsilent1937
631SLAUGHTER, Louise McIntosh0.414141414DemocratLeft100115NYsilent1929
632COON, Samuel Harrison0.413793103RepublicanRight8384ORgreatest1903
633BARBOUR, William Warren0.413533835RepublicanCenter7278NJlost1888
634ANDREWS, George William0.413333333DemocratRight7892ALgreatest1906
635JONAS, Charles Raper0.413294798RepublicanRight8392NCgreatest1904
636HUDDLESTON, Walter Darlington0.412429379DemocratRight9398KYgreatest1926
637GWINN, Ralph Waldo0.412371134RepublicanCenter7985NYlost1884
638PATTISON, Edward Worthington0.412DemocratLeft9495NYsilent1932
639BURKE, Yvonne Brathwaite0.411971831DemocratLeft9395CAsilent1932
640KING, Carleton James0.411411411RepublicanRight8793NYgreatest1904
641FISH, Hamilton0.411111111RepublicanCenter6678NYlost1888
642STOCKMAN, Lowell0.410958904RepublicanRight7882ORgreatest1901
643MATHIS, Marvin Dawson0.410550459DemocratRight9296GAsilent1940
644MICHENER, Earl Cory0.410404624RepublicanCenter6681MImissionary1876
645McARDLE, Joseph A.0.41025641DemocratLeft7677PAgreatest1903
646SKAGGS, David Evans0.410169492DemocratLeft100105COsilent1943
647FERRARO, Geraldine Anne0.41005291DemocratLeft9698NYsilent1935
648ERVIN, Samuel James, Jr.0.409210526DemocratRight7993NClost1896
649ROUSH, John Edward0.409200969DemocratCenter8694INgreatest1920
650HRUSKA, Roman Lee0.409198113RepublicanCenter8394NEgreatest1904
651LUKEN, Thomas Andrew0.409141583DemocratLeft93101OHgreatest1925
652BINGAMAN, Jesse Francis, Jr. (Jeff)0.409090909DemocratCenter98112NMsilent1943
653ROBERTSON, Absalom Willis0.408759124DemocratRight7389VAlost1887
654LANGEN, Odin Elsford Stanley0.408695652RepublicanCenter8691MNgreatest1913
655LANDRUM, Phillip Mitchell0.408521303DemocratRight8394GAgreatest1907
656JONES, Ed0.408266129DemocratRight91100TNgreatest1912
657WHITTEN, Jamie Lloyd0.408136483DemocratRight77103MSgreatest1910
658PETRI, Thomas Evert0.407979408RepublicanCenter96113WIsilent1940
659YATES, Sidney Richard0.407876231DemocratLeft81105ILgreatest1909
660REIFEL, Benjamin0.407821229RepublicanCenter8791SDgreatest1906
661SECREST, Robert Thompson0.407582938DemocratCenter7389OHgreatest1904
662REGAN, Kenneth Mills0.407407407DemocratRight8083TXlost1893
663TABER, John0.406896552RepublicanRight6887NYmissionary1880
664BLACKNEY, William Wallace0.40625RepublicanCenter7482MImissionary1876
665ROBESON, Edward John, Jr.0.405797101DemocratRight8185VAlost1890
666LITTON, Jerry Lon0.405797101DemocratCenter9394MOsilent1937
667RANKIN, John Elliott0.405555556DemocratRight6782MSmissionary1882
668CHURCH, Frank Forrester0.404017857DemocratCenter8596IDgreatest1924
669FORRESTER, Elijah Lewis0.40397351DemocratRight8288GAlost1896
670JONES, James Robert0.403869407DemocratCenter9399OKsilent1939
671CAVANAUGH, John Joseph0.402597403DemocratLeft9596NEsilent1945
672LODGE, Henry Cabot, Jr.0.402116402RepublicanCenter7582MAgreatest1902
673McHUGH, Matthew Francis0.402091255DemocratLeft94102NYsilent1938
674ERTEL, Allen Edward0.402035623DemocratCenter9597PAsilent1937
675TIBBOTT, Harve0.401639344RepublicanCenter7680PAlost1885
676BAYH, Birch Evans0.40141844DemocratCenter8896INsilent1928
677LUDLOW, Louis Leon0.401408451DemocratLeft7180INmissionary1873
678GUDGER, Vonno Lamar, Jr.0.401315789DemocratCenter9596NCgreatest1919
679YOUNG, Andrew Jackson, Jr.0.401197605DemocratLeft9395GAsilent1932
680HOPE, Clifford Ragsdale0.401041667RepublicanRight7084KSlost1893
681FORSYTHE, Edwin Bell0.400868307RepublicanCenter9198NJgreatest1916
682FREY, Oliver Walter0.4DemocratCenter7375PAlost1887
683HALE, Frederick0.4RepublicanCenter6576MEmissionary1874
684HARRINGTON, Vincent Francis0.4DemocratCenter7577IAgreatest1903
685CARLYLE, Frank Ertel0.4DemocratRight8184NClost1897
686NEAL, William Elmer0.4RepublicanRight8385WVmissionary1875
687BAFALIS, Louis Arthur (Skip)0.4RepublicanRight9397FLsilent1929
688CRANE, Philip Miller0.399820305RepublicanRight91108ILsilent1930
689WEICKER, Lowell Palmer, Jr.0.399790136RepublicanCenter91100CTsilent1931
690ELLENDER, Allen Joseph0.399297424DemocratRight7592LAlost1890
691MONDALE, Walter Frederick0.399260628DemocratLeft8994MNsilent1928
692SHARP, Philip Riley0.399235912DemocratLeft94103INsilent1942
693ROSENTHAL, Benjamin Stanley0.399234694DemocratLeft8797NYgreatest1923
694GUARINI, Frank Joseph, Jr.0.398976982DemocratLeft96102NJgreatest1924
695GILLETTE, Guy Mark0.39893617DemocratCenter7383IAmissionary1879
696HULL, William Raleigh, Jr.0.398753894DemocratRight8492MOgreatest1906
697COLMER, William Meyers0.398249453DemocratRight7392MSlost1890
698SHIPLEY, George Edward0.398214286DemocratRight8695ILgreatest1927
699ANDERSON, Glenn Malcolm0.398058252DemocratLeft91102CAgreatest1913
700O'CONNOR, James Francis0.397727273DemocratLeft7579MTmissionary1878
701SKUBITZ, Joe0.397727273RepublicanRight8895KSgreatest1906
702OWENS, Douglas Wayne0.397727273DemocratLeft93102UTsilent1937
703THOMPSON, Standish Fletcher0.397260274RepublicanRight9092GAgreatest1925
704BINGHAM, Jonathan Brewster0.397208122DemocratLeft8997NYgreatest1914
705McINTIRE, Clifford Guy0.397163121RepublicanCenter8288MEgreatest1908
706WATKINS, Wesley Wade0.396610169RepublicanRight95101OKsilent1938
707MARSH, John Otho, Jr.0.396551724DemocratRight8891VAgreatest1926
708LANTOS, Thomas Peter0.396551724DemocratLeft97110CAsilent1928
709SANTINI, James David0.396436526DemocratCenter9497NVsilent1937
710KYL, John Henry0.396313364RepublicanCenter8692IAgreatest1919
711HENRY, Paul B.0.39608802RepublicanCenter99103MIsilent1942
712MAZZOLI, Romano Louis0.396006656DemocratLeft92103KYsilent1932
713MUNDT, Karl Earl0.395833333RepublicanCenter7692SDlost1900
714MATTOX, James Albon0.395833333DemocratLeft9597TXsilent1943
715KILGORE, Joe Madison0.395683453DemocratRight8488TXgreatest1918
716WALDIE, Jerome Russell0.395555556DemocratLeft8993CAgreatest1925
717PLOESER, Walter Christian0.395348837RepublicanCenter7780MOgreatest1907
718BROWN, George Hanks (Hank)0.395280236RepublicanRight97104COsilent1940
719TUNNEY, John Varick0.395180723DemocratLeft8994CAsilent1934
720NEAL, Stephen Lybrook0.395DemocratCenter94103NCsilent1934
721MILLER, Clarence E.0.394736842RepublicanCenter90102OHgreatest1917
722SOLARZ, Stephen Joshua0.394406943DemocratLeft94102NYsilent1940
723WAGGONNER, Joseph David, Jr.0.394097222DemocratRight8795LAgreatest1918
724ELSAESSER, Edward Julius0.393939394RepublicanCenter7980NYgreatest1904
725GOLDEN, James Stephen0.393939394RepublicanCenter8183KYlost1891
726BUTLER, John Cornelius0.393617021RepublicanCenter7782NYlost1887
727STALLINGS, Richard Howard0.392947103DemocratCenter99102IDsilent1940
728RICHARDSON, Bill0.392592593DemocratCenter98105NMboomer1947
729McLEAN, Donald Holman0.392523364RepublicanCenter7378NJlost1884
730PILLION, John Raymond0.392307692RepublicanCenter8388NYgreatest1904
731BURLISON, Bill D.0.392123288DemocratRight9196MOsilent1931
732KOGOVSEK, Raymond Peter0.391534392DemocratCenter9698COsilent1941
733ROGERS, Paul Grant0.391495601DemocratCenter8495FLgreatest1921
734CITRON, William Michael0.391304348DemocratLeft7475CTlost1896
735WOOD, John Stephens0.391304348DemocratRight7282GAlost1885
736GRIFFIN, Charles Hudson0.391304348DemocratRight9092MSgreatest1926
737GLICKMAN, Daniel Robert0.391213389DemocratLeft95103KSsilent1944
738BRINKLEY, Jack Thomas0.391188251DemocratRight9097GAsilent1930
739REID, Harry0.391071429DemocratCenter98114NVsilent1939
740FORD, Wendell Hampton0.39101862DemocratRight94105KYgreatest1924
741SANFORD, (James) Terry0.39100346DemocratCenter100102NCgreatest1917
742KING, William Henry0.390804598DemocratLeft5576UTmissionary1863
743SAWYER, Thomas Charles0.390572391DemocratLeft100107OHsilent1945
744SIMON, Paul Martin0.390243902DemocratLeft94104ILsilent1928
745HARTLEY, Fred Allan, Jr.0.389830508RepublicanCenter7180NJgreatest1902
746BAKER, LaMar0.389705882RepublicanRight9293TNgreatest1915
747HINSON, Jon Clifton0.389705882RepublicanRight9697MSsilent1942
748GORDON, Barton Jennings0.389705882DemocratCenter99111TNboomer1949
749SANGMEISTER, George Edward0.389705882DemocratCenter101103ILsilent1931
750PODELL, Bertram L.0.389534884DemocratLeft9093NYgreatest1925
751HEFNER, Willie Gathrel (Bill)0.389328063DemocratRight94105NCsilent1930
752GREENWOOD, Arthur Herbert0.388888889DemocratRight6875INmissionary1880
753MESKILL, Thomas Joseph0.388888889RepublicanCenter9091CTsilent1928
754MINSHALL, William Edwin, Jr.0.388739946RepublicanCenter8493OHgreatest1911
755POWERS, David Lane0.388429752RepublicanCenter7379NJlost1896
756SYMINGTON, William Stuart (Stuart)0.388419783DemocratCenter8394MOgreatest1901
757TAYLOR, Glen Hearst0.387096774DemocratLeft7981IDgreatest1904
758BURLESON, Omar Truman0.386962552DemocratRight8095TXgreatest1906
759MANSFIELD, Michael Joseph (Mike)0.386609071DemocratCenter7894MTgreatest1903
760MACK, Russell Vernon0.386138614RepublicanCenter8086WAlost1891
761WILLIS, Edwin Edward0.386138614DemocratRight8190LAgreatest1904
762STEELMAN, Alan Watson0.385620915RepublicanCenter9394TXsilent1942
763FITHIAN, Floyd James0.385438972DemocratLeft9497INsilent1928
764CARNEY, Charles Joseph0.384223919DemocratCenter9195OHgreatest1913
765McDONALD, Jack H.0.384RepublicanCenter9092MIsilent1932
766CLARKE, James McClure0.38381201DemocratCenter98101NCgreatest1917
767DERRICK, Butler Carson, Jr.0.383697813DemocratCenter94103SCsilent1936
768O'DANIEL, Wilbert Lee (Pappy)0.383561644DemocratRight7780TXlost1890
769HALL, Sam Blakeley, Jr.0.383275261DemocratRight9499TXgreatest1924
770RUMSFELD, Donald Henry0.3828125RepublicanCenter8891ILsilent1932
771ST. GERMAIN, Fernand Joseph0.382601351DemocratLeft87100RIsilent1928
772BEARD, Edward Peter0.3825DemocratLeft9496RIsilent1940
773MILLER, William Jennings0.382352941RepublicanCenter7680CTlost1899
774MOULDER, Morgan Moore0.382113821DemocratRight8187MOgreatest1904
775FISHER, Ovie Clark0.38209607DemocratRight7893TXgreatest1903
776GREEN, Sedgwick William (Bill)0.381920904RepublicanLeft95102NYsilent1929
777DAVIS, Mendel Jackson0.381663113DemocratRight9296SCsilent1942
778SIMPSON, Richard Murray0.381443299RepublicanCenter7586PAlost1900
779FLOWERS, Walter0.381355932DemocratRight9195ALsilent1933
780HANCOCK, Melton D. (Mel)0.381294964RepublicanRight101104MOsilent1929
781UNSOELD, Jolene0.381294964DemocratLeft101103WAsilent1931
782JENNINGS, William Pat0.38121547DemocratRight8489VAgreatest1919
783YOUNG, Milton Ruben0.381040892RepublicanRight7996NDlost1897
784GRAY, Finly Hutchinson0.380952381DemocratCenter6275INmissionary1863
785STACK, Michael Joseph0.380952381DemocratLeft7475PAlost1888
786EDWARDS, Edwin Washington0.380952381DemocratRight8992LAgreatest1927
787BYRD, Robert Carlyle0.380923815DemocratRight83111WVgreatest1917
788BALDUS, Alvin James0.380462725DemocratLeft9496WIgreatest1926
789ANTHONY, Beryl Franklin, Jr.0.380376344DemocratCenter96102ARsilent1938
790MURPHY, George Lloyd0.380165289RepublicanCenter8991CAgreatest1902
791HOLMES, Pehr Gustaf0.379844961RepublicanCenter7279MAmissionary1881
792MYERS, Michael Joseph (Ozzie)0.378676471DemocratCenter9596PAsilent1943
793POSHARD, Glenn0.378571429DemocratCenter101105ILsilent1945
794BUTLER, John Marshall0.378504673RepublicanCenter8287MDlost1897
795HOCHBRUECKNER, George Joseph0.378378378DemocratCenter100103NYsilent1938
796YOUNG, Stephen Marvin0.377358491DemocratLeft7391OHlost1889
797DECKARD, Huey Joel0.377192982RepublicanCenter9697INsilent1942
798BURKE, J. Herbert0.376940133RepublicanRight9095FLgreatest1913
799BROMWELL, James Edward0.376811594RepublicanCenter8788IAgreatest1920
800HARRISON, Burr Powell0.376712329DemocratRight8087VAgreatest1904
801TAYLOR, Gary Eugene (Gene)0.376623377DemocratRight101111MSboomer1953
802HAGEN, Harold Christian0.376470588RepublicanCenter7883MNgreatest1901
803KETCHUM, William Matthew0.376383764RepublicanRight9395CAgreatest1921
804REYNOLDS, Robert Rice0.37593985DemocratRight7278NClost1884
805PATTERSON, Elizabeth J.0.375838926DemocratCenter100102SCsilent1939
806ASPIN, Leslie0.375661376DemocratLeft92103WIsilent1938
807CRAVENS, William Ben0.375DemocratCenter6076ARmissionary1872
808McDERMOTT, James A.0.374045802DemocratLeft101114WAsilent1936
809HOYER, Steny Hamilton0.374034003DemocratCenter97116MDsilent1939
810McKINNEY, Stewart Brett0.373974209RepublicanLeft92100CTsilent1931
811KLEPPE, Thomas Savig0.373493976RepublicanRight9091NDgreatest1919
812FULBRIGHT, James William0.373193167DemocratRight7893ARgreatest1905
813HENDERSON, David Newton0.372641509DemocratRight8794NCgreatest1921
814ROBERTS, Herbert Ray0.372372372DemocratRight8796TXgreatest1913
815RONCALIO, Teno0.372340426DemocratCenter8995WYgreatest1916
816ZORINSKY, Edward0.372137405DemocratRight95100NEsilent1928
817ROUKEMA, Margaret Scafati0.372093023RepublicanCenter97107NJsilent1929
818ADDABBO, Joseph Patrick0.371794872DemocratLeft8799NYgreatest1925
819EASTLAND, James Oliver0.371663244DemocratRight7795MSgreatest1904
820JEFFRIES, James Edmund0.371541502RepublicanRight9697KSgreatest1925
821BYRD, Harry Flood, Jr.0.371428571OtherRight8997VAgreatest1914
822RODINO, Peter Wallace, Jr.0.371175523DemocratLeft81100NJgreatest1909
823STEVENSON, William Henry0.370786517RepublicanCenter7780WIlost1891
824CARTER, Tim Lee0.370662461RepublicanRight8996KYgreatest1910
825ROSE, Charles Grandison, III0.370009737DemocratRight93104NCsilent1939
826DENNEY, Robert Vernon0.369863014RepublicanCenter9091NEgreatest1916
827WHEELER, William McDonald (Don)0.369565217DemocratRight8083GAgreatest1915
828CAFFERY, Patrick Thomson0.369565217DemocratRight9192LAsilent1932
829McKERNAN, John Rettie, Jr.0.369477912RepublicanCenter9899MEboomer1948
830HUNT, John Edmund0.369369369RepublicanRight9093NJgreatest1908
831ENGLISH, Glenn Lee, Jr.0.369274809DemocratRight94103OKsilent1940
832GOODELL, Charles Ellsworth0.369047619RepublicanCenter8691NYgreatest1926
833FAZIO, Victor Herbert, Jr.0.368956743DemocratCenter96105CAsilent1942
834SHANNON, Joseph Bernard0.368421053DemocratLeft7277MOmissionary1867
835BLACK, Hugo Lafayette0.368421053DemocratCenter7075ALlost1886
836GOODLING, William Franklin0.36809816RepublicanCenter94106PAgreatest1927
837MATSUNAGA, Spark Masayuki0.368068834DemocratLeft88101HIgreatest1916
838RIDGE, Thomas Joseph0.36802974RepublicanCenter98103PAsilent1945
839GIBSON, Ernest Willard0.367647059RepublicanCenter6876VTmissionary1872
840COTTER, William Ross0.367063492DemocratCenter9297CTgreatest1926
841MARCANTONIO, Vito Anthony0.366666667OtherLeft7481NYgreatest1902
842HESS, William Emil0.366515837RepublicanCenter7186OHlost1898
843CAMPBELL, Ben Nighthorse0.365853659RepublicanCenter100104COsilent1933
844FRASER, Donald MacKay0.365269461DemocratLeft8895MNgreatest1924
845WALKER, Robert Smith0.364864865RepublicanRight95104PAsilent1942
846JEFFORDS, James Merrill0.364798427OtherCenter94107VTsilent1934
847EXON, J. James0.364656381DemocratRight96104NEgreatest1921
848LICHTENWALTER, Franklin Herbert0.363636364RepublicanCenter8081PAgreatest1910
849BROOKE, Edward William, III0.363636364RepublicanLeft9095MAgreatest1919
850GRISHAM, Wayne Richard0.362869198RepublicanCenter9697CAgreatest1923
851MORELLA, Constance A.0.362711864RepublicanLeft100107MDsilent1931
852UDALL, Morris King0.362673187DemocratCenter87102AZgreatest1922
853PASSMAN, Otto Ernest0.36259542DemocratRight8094LAlost1900
854RANDOLPH, Jennings0.362385321DemocratCenter7398WVgreatest1902
855BARDEN, Graham Arthur0.362318841DemocratRight7486NClost1896
856MOSHER, Charles Adams0.362318841RepublicanCenter8794OHgreatest1906
857MEZVINSKY, Edward Maurice0.362068966DemocratLeft9394IAsilent1937
858BENNETT, Charles Edward0.361633182DemocratCenter81102FLgreatest1910
859WYMAN, Louis Crosby0.361445783RepublicanCenter8893NHgreatest1917
860CORDON, Guy0.360465116RepublicanRight7883ORlost1890
861McFARLANE, William Doddridge0.36DemocratRight7375TXlost1894
862DeCONCINI, Dennis Webster0.359848485DemocratRight95103AZsilent1937
863YATRON, Gus0.359504132DemocratCenter91102PAgreatest1927
864GEORGE, Myron Virgil0.359375RepublicanCenter8185KSlost1900
865MEYNER, Helen Stevenson0.359183673DemocratLeft9495NJsilent1929
866ANDREWS, Walter Gresham0.35915493RepublicanCenter7280NYlost1889
867BLANTON, Leonard Ray0.358974359DemocratRight9092TNsilent1930
868HOLLAND, Kenneth Lamar0.358722359DemocratRight9497SCsilent1934
869ZION, Roger Herschel0.35840708RepublicanRight9093INgreatest1921
870MIZELL, Wilmer David (Vinegar Bend)0.35828877RepublicanRight9193NCsilent1930
871HART, Philip Aloysius0.358251058DemocratLeft8694MIgreatest1912
872HANCOCK, Clarence Eugene0.358208955RepublicanCenter7079NYlost1885
873POWELL, Walter Eugene0.358208955RepublicanRight9293OHsilent1931
874BEARD, Robin Leo, Jr.0.358070501RepublicanRight9397TNsilent1939
875SHUSTER, E. G. (Bud)0.358035714RepublicanRight93107PAsilent1932
876EMERY, David Farnham0.358RepublicanCenter9497MEboomer1948
877THONE, Charles0.357923497RepublicanCenter9295NEgreatest1924
878ROE, Robert A.0.357709251DemocratCenter91102NJgreatest1924
879PURSELL, Carl Duane0.357623318RepublicanCenter95102MIsilent1932
880KOHL, Herbert H.0.357541899DemocratLeft101112WIsilent1935
881BONER, William Hill0.357421875DemocratCenter96100TNsilent1945
882HOWARD, James John0.357276119DemocratLeft89100NJgreatest1927
883LUJ�N, Manuel, Jr.0.357212004RepublicanCenter91100NMsilent1928
884BROYHILL, James Thomas0.357209302RepublicanRight8899NCgreatest1927
885GASQUE, Allard Henry0.357142857DemocratRight6875SCmissionary1873
886RIBICOFF, Abraham Alexander0.357056695DemocratLeft8196CTgreatest1910
887HELSTOSKI, Henry0.356932153DemocratLeft8994NJgreatest1925
888CHIPERFIELD, Robert Bruce0.356589147RepublicanCenter7687ILlost1899
889LaFALCE, John Joseph0.356573705DemocratCenter94107NYsilent1939
890JENNINGS, John, Jr.0.356521739RepublicanRight7681TNmissionary1880
891PILCHER, John Leonard0.356521739DemocratRight8388GAlost1898
892DUNCAN, John James0.356392294RepublicanRight89100TNgreatest1919
893GALIFIANAKIS, Nick0.356060606DemocratRight9092NCsilent1928
894POLLOCK, Howard Wallace0.355932203RepublicanRight9091AKgreatest1920
895BIAGGI, Mario0.355821545DemocratCenter91100NYgreatest1917
896D'AMOURS, Norman Edward0.355661882DemocratLeft9498NHsilent1937
897DANNEMEYER, William Edwin0.355527638RepublicanRight96102CAsilent1929
898GOLDWATER, Barry Morris0.35546476RepublicanRight8399AZgreatest1909
899YOUNG, Robert Anton, III0.35508346DemocratCenter9599MOgreatest1923
900COOPER, James Hayes Shofner0.35483871DemocratLeft98116TNboomer1954
901ANDREWS, Ike Franklin0.354740061DemocratCenter9398NCgreatest1925
902SADOWSKI, George Gregory0.35443038DemocratLeft7381MIgreatest1903
903HOWELL, George Evan0.35443038RepublicanCenter7780ILgreatest1905
904ZSCHAU, Edwin Van Wyck0.35443038RepublicanCenter9899CAsilent1940
905TAYLOR, Roy Arthur0.354401806DemocratRight8694NCgreatest1910
906GERLACH, Charles Lewis0.354166667RepublicanCenter7680PAlost1895
907WHITLEY, Charles Orville0.353658537DemocratRight9599NCgreatest1927
908ST. GEORGE, Katharine Price Collier0.352941176RepublicanCenter8088NYlost1894
909McMILLAN, John Lanneau0.352402746DemocratRight7692SClost1898
910AKAKA, Daniel Kahikina0.352400409DemocratCenter95112HIgreatest1924
911ERDAHL, Arlen Ingolf0.352226721RepublicanCenter9697MNsilent1931
912RISENHOOVER, Theodore Marshall0.35193133DemocratRight9495OKsilent1934
913FREY, Louis, Jr.0.351498638RepublicanCenter9195FLsilent1934
914RANDALL, William Joseph0.351351351DemocratRight8694MOgreatest1909
915LEDERER, Raymond Francis0.351170569DemocratCenter9597PAsilent1938
916HOLLENBECK, Harold Capistran0.351010101RepublicanLeft9597NJsilent1938
917COSTELLO, Jerry Francis0.350993377DemocratRight100112ILboomer1949
918COLEMAN, Ronald D'Emory0.350553506DemocratRight98104TXsilent1941
919PRICE, David Eugene0.350515464DemocratLeft100116NCsilent1940
920BLACKBURN, Benjamin Bentley0.350253807RepublicanRight9093GAgreatest1927
921BETHUNE, Edwin Ruthvin, Jr.0.350132626RepublicanCenter9698ARsilent1935
922WILCOX, James Mark0.35DemocratRight7375FLlost1890
923PALMISANO, Vincent Luke0.35DemocratLeft7075MDmissionary1882
924DALY, John Burrwood0.35DemocratLeft7476PAmissionary1872
925GALLAGHER, James A.0.35RepublicanCenter7880PAmissionary1869
926DOLLIVER, James Isaac0.35RepublicanRight7984IAlost1894
927SERRANO, José E.0.35DemocratLeft101116NYsilent1943
928ROEMER, Charles Elson (Buddy), III0.349633252DemocratCenter97100LAsilent1943
929RUTH, Earl Baker0.349462366RepublicanRight9193NCgreatest1916
930EILBERG, Joshua0.349240781DemocratCenter9095PAgreatest1921
931TEAGUE, Olin Earl0.348880597DemocratRight8095TXgreatest1910
932KINDNESS, Thomas Norman0.348360656RepublicanCenter9499OHsilent1929
933STUMP, Robert Lee0.348242812RepublicanRight9597AZgreatest1927
934STUMP, Robert Lee0.348242812RepublicanRight98107AZgreatest1927
935REES, Thomas Mankell0.347962382DemocratLeft8994CAgreatest1925
936ROBERTS, Charles Patrick (Pat)0.347962382RepublicanCenter97116KSsilent1936
937COLDEN, Charles J.0.347826087DemocratCenter7375CAmissionary1870
938DORSEY, Frank Joseph Gerard0.347826087DemocratLeft7475PAlost1891
939ECKERT, Charles Richard0.347826087DemocratLeft7475PAmissionary1868
940FOWLER, Wyche, Jr.0.347438753DemocratCenter95102GAsilent1940
941SMITH, Dennis Alan (Denny)0.347079038RepublicanRight97101ORsilent1938
942GORE, Albert Arnold, Jr.0.346808511DemocratCenter95102TNboomer1948
943DANIEL, Robert Williams, Jr.0.346666667RepublicanRight9397VAsilent1936
944VALENTINE, Itimous Thaddeus, Jr., (Tim)0.346590909DemocratCenter98103NCgreatest1926
945CLASON, Charles Russell0.346456693RepublicanCenter7580MAlost1890
946LATTA, Delbert Leroy0.346368715RepublicanCenter86100OHgreatest1920
947HECKLER, Margaret M.0.346045198RepublicanLeft9097MAsilent1931
948KORNEGAY, Horace Robinson0.34591195DemocratRight8790NCgreatest1924
949NEAL, Richard Edmund0.345588235DemocratLeft101116MAboomer1949
950MARKS, Marc Lincoln0.345360825RepublicanLeft9597PAgreatest1927
951LLOYD, Marilyn Laird0.345261122DemocratCenter94103TNsilent1929
952TAYLOR, Gene0.345151199RepublicanRight93100MOsilent1928
953KERR, Robert Samuel0.345098039DemocratRight8187OKlost1896
954FOUNTAIN, Lawrence H.0.345010616DemocratRight8397NCgreatest1913
955DURKIN, John Anthony0.344827586DemocratCenter9496NHsilent1936
956QUILLEN, James Henry0.344313725RepublicanRight88104TNgreatest1916
957FENWICK, Millicent Hammond0.343936382RepublicanCenter9497NJgreatest1910
958HILL, Knute0.34375DemocratLeft7377WAmissionary1876
959ECKHARDT, Robert Christian0.343537415DemocratLeft9096TXgreatest1913
960COWGER, William Owen0.343283582RepublicanCenter9091KYgreatest1922
961STOCKMAN, David Alan0.343283582RepublicanCenter9597MIboomer1946
962McDONOUGH, Gordon Leo0.343023256RepublicanCenter7987CAlost1895
963SMITH, Virginia Dodd0.342942346RepublicanRight94101NEgreatest1911
964WHITE, Wallace Humphrey, Jr.0.342696629RepublicanCenter6580MEmissionary1877
965BURTON, Harold Hitz0.342465753RepublicanCenter7779OHlost1888
966LARCADE, Henry Dominique, Jr.0.342465753DemocratRight7882LAlost1890
967GLENN, John Herschel, Jr.0.342403628DemocratLeft94105OHgreatest1921
968DOWDY, Charles Wayne0.342364532DemocratRight97100MSsilent1943
969SHAYS, Christopher H.0.342222222RepublicanCenter100110CTsilent1945
970HUBBARD, Carroll, Jr.0.341708543DemocratCenter94102KYsilent1937
971GRASSO, Ella Tambussi0.341666667DemocratLeft9293CTgreatest1919
972CLAUSEN, Donald Holst0.341623037RepublicanRight8897CAgreatest1923
973CASEY, Robert Randolph0.341584158DemocratRight8694TXgreatest1915
974MARLENEE, Ronald Charles0.341356674RepublicanCenter95102MTsilent1935
975LONG, Clarence Dickinson0.340980188DemocratCenter8898MDgreatest1908
976PLUMLEY, Charles Albert0.340740741RepublicanCenter7381VTmissionary1875
977VREELAND, Albert Lincoln0.34RepublicanCenter7677NJgreatest1901
978DIES, Martin, Jr.0.339449541DemocratRight7285TXlost1900
979MATHIAS, Charles McCurdy, Jr.0.339121553RepublicanLeft8799MDgreatest1922
980THOMSON, Vernon Wallace0.338983051RepublicanCenter8793WIgreatest1905
981MILFORD, Dale0.338582677DemocratRight9395TXgreatest1926
982TALLON, Robert Mooneyhan, Jr. (Robin)0.338317757DemocratCenter98102SCboomer1946
983SCHENCK, Paul Fornshell0.337748344RepublicanCenter8288OHlost1899
984ARCHER, William Reynolds, Jr.0.337248322RepublicanRight92106TXsilent1928
985MONTGOMERY, Gillespie V. (Sonny)0.337016575DemocratRight90104MSgreatest1920
986SHANLEY, James Andrew0.336842105DemocratLeft7477CTlost1896
987MOTT, James Wheaton0.336134454RepublicanCenter7379ORlost1883
988JENKINS, Edgar Lanier (Ed)0.336009174DemocratRight95102GAsilent1933
989SEBELIUS, Keith George0.335766423RepublicanRight9196KSgreatest1916
990ROTH, Toby A.0.335435057RepublicanCenter96104WIsilent1938
991SPRATT, John McKee, Jr.0.335195531DemocratCenter98111SCsilent1942
992KUYKENDALL, Dan Heflin0.334975369RepublicanRight9093TNgreatest1924
993PIKE, Otis Grey0.334943639DemocratLeft8795NYgreatest1921
994DICKINSON, William Louis0.334920635RepublicanCenter89102ALgreatest1925
995HOPKINS, Larry Jones0.334610473RepublicanCenter96102KYsilent1933
996HEFTEL, Cecil Landau0.334579439DemocratCenter9599HIgreatest1924
997PATTERSON, Jerry Mumford0.334453782DemocratCenter9498CAsilent1934
998GROVER, James Russell, Jr.0.334394904RepublicanCenter8893NYgreatest1919
999ROBINSON, James Kenneth0.334161491RepublicanRight9298VAgreatest1916
1000HATHAWAY, William Dodd0.334024896DemocratLeft8995MEgreatest1924
1001ALLEN, James Browning0.334024896DemocratRight9195ALgreatest1912
1002GRISWOLD, Glenn Hasenfratz0.333333333DemocratCenter7275INlost1890
1003PEYSER, Theodore Albert0.333333333DemocratLeft7375NYmissionary1873
1004ELLENBOGEN, Henry0.333333333DemocratLeft7375PAlost1900
1005TURNER, Clarence Wyly0.333333333DemocratRight6776TNmissionary1866
1006CARSON, Henderson Haverfield0.333333333RepublicanCenter7880OHlost1893
1007CRAMER, William Cato0.333333333RepublicanRight8491FLgreatest1922
1008BLAKLEY, William Arvis0.333333333DemocratRight8587TXlost1898
1009BUSTAMANTE, Albert G.0.333333333DemocratRight99102TXsilent1935
1010HAYES, James Allison0.333333333RepublicanRight100104LAboomer1946
1011KERREY, J. Robert0.333333333DemocratLeft101106NEsilent1943
1012GRASSLEY, Charles Ernest0.332369942RepublicanCenter94116IAsilent1933
1013ADAMS, Brockman (Brock)0.332335329DemocratLeft89102WAgreatest1927
1014MARTIN, Thomas Ellsworth0.332167832RepublicanCenter7686IAlost1893
1015McCOLLISTER, John Yetter0.331838565RepublicanRight9294NEgreatest1921
1016CLEMENT, Robert Nelson0.331550802DemocratCenter100107TNsilent1943
1017WILLIAMS, Lyle0.331428571RepublicanCenter9698OHsilent1942
1018NIELSON, Howard Curtis0.330661323RepublicanRight98101UTgreatest1924
1019BLANCHARD, James Johnston0.330543933DemocratLeft9497MIsilent1942
1020SYMMS, Steven Douglas0.330524345RepublicanRight93102IDsilent1938
1021MICA, Daniel Andrew0.330049261DemocratCenter96100FLsilent1944
1022AMBRO, Jerome Anthony, Jr.0.329815303DemocratLeft9496NYsilent1928
1023LONG, Russell Billiu0.329554044DemocratRight8199LAgreatest1918
1024MOSER, Guy Louis0.329268293DemocratRight7577PAlost1886
1025PATMAN, William Neff0.329218107DemocratRight9798TXgreatest1927
1026BEVILL, Tom0.328936521DemocratRight90104ALgreatest1921
1027DANIEL, Wilbur Clarence (Dan)0.328820116DemocratRight91100VAgreatest1914
1028TENEROWICZ, Rudolph Gabriel0.328571429DemocratLeft7677MIlost1890
1029DAVIS, Glenn Robert0.328488372RepublicanCenter8093WIgreatest1914
1030NATCHER, William Huston0.328486451DemocratRight83103KYgreatest1909
1031GREGG, Judd Alan0.328RepublicanCenter97111NHboomer1947
1032HAGEDORN, Thomas Michael0.32776618RepublicanCenter9497MNsilent1943
1033SNOWE, Olympia Jean0.327521793RepublicanCenter96112MEboomer1947
1034ELLSWORTH, Robert Fred0.327272727RepublicanCenter8789KSgreatest1926
1035DIXON, Alan John0.326953748DemocratCenter97102ILgreatest1927
1036WILLIAMS, William Robert0.326923077RepublicanCenter8285NYlost1884
1037HOLT, Marjorie Sewell0.326582278RepublicanRight9399MDgreatest1920
1038REUSS, Henry Schoellkopf0.326280624DemocratLeft8497WIgreatest1912
1039DUNCAN, John J., Jr.0.326086957RepublicanRight101115TNboomer1947
1040WHALEN, Charles William, Jr.0.32594235RepublicanLeft9095OHgreatest1920
1041SPONG, William Belser, Jr.0.325657895DemocratRight9092VAgreatest1920
1042METCALF, Lee Warren0.325644505DemocratCenter8395MTgreatest1911
1043MONTOYA, Joseph Manuel0.325281804DemocratCenter8594NMgreatest1915
1044GILLETTE, Wilson Darwin0.325RepublicanCenter7782PAmissionary1880
1045MOSS, Frank Edward (Ted)0.324888227DemocratCenter8694UTgreatest1911
1046NICHOLS, William Flynt0.324675325DemocratRight90101ALgreatest1918
1047HINSHAW, Andrew Jackson0.324324324RepublicanRight9394CAgreatest1923
1048MARTIN, James Grubbs0.324167873RepublicanCenter9398NCsilent1935
1049HOOK, Frank Eugene0.323809524DemocratLeft7479MIlost1893
1050COOK, Marlow Webster0.323432343RepublicanCenter9193KYgreatest1926
1051COTTON, Norris H.0.322537112RepublicanCenter8094NHlost1900
1052WOLFF, Lester Lionel0.322429907DemocratLeft8996NYgreatest1919
1053FRENZEL, William Eldridge0.322141561RepublicanCenter92101MNsilent1928
1054POFF, Richard Harding0.32183908RepublicanRight8392VAgreatest1923
1055HANCE, Kent Ronald0.32183908DemocratRight9698TXsilent1942
1056YOUNGER, Jesse Arthur0.321782178RepublicanCenter8390CAlost1893
1057BRASCO, Frank James0.321782178DemocratLeft9093NYsilent1932
1058PRESSLER, Larry Lee0.321748879RepublicanCenter94104SDsilent1942
1059JOHNSTON, John Bennett, Jr.0.321613237DemocratRight93104LAsilent1932
1060DINGELL, John David, Jr.0.321481481DemocratCenter84113MIgreatest1926
1061FLIPPO, Ronnie Gene0.321299639DemocratRight95101ALsilent1937
1062HANNAFORD, Mark Warren0.321138211DemocratLeft9495CAgreatest1925
1063McCORMACK, Mike0.321063395DemocratCenter9296WAgreatest1921
1064CHAPMAN, Jim0.320809249DemocratRight99104TXsilent1945
1065GUNDERSON, Steven Craig0.320610687RepublicanCenter97104WIboomer1951
1066MOLLOHAN, Alan Bowlby0.32037037DemocratRight98111WVsilent1943
1067INOUYE, Daniel Ken0.320300752DemocratCenter86112HIgreatest1924
1068SMITH, Robert Freeman0.320297952RepublicanCenter98105ORsilent1931
1069GILLESPIE, Dean Milton0.32RepublicanCenter7879COlost1884
1070CANNON, Howard Walter0.319875776DemocratCenter8697NVgreatest1912
1071SHUMWAY, Norman David0.319838057RepublicanRight96101CAsilent1934
1072MOORHEAD, Carlos John0.319787986RepublicanCenter93104CAgreatest1922
1073GOLDWATER, Barry Morris, Jr.0.319516408RepublicanCenter9197CAsilent1938
1074GURNEY, Edward John0.318681319RepublicanRight8893FLgreatest1914
1075SCHWEIKER, Richard Schultz0.318584071RepublicanCenter8796PAgreatest1926
1076GONZ�LEZ, Henry B.0.318551367DemocratLeft87105TXgreatest1916
1077LEE, Gary Alcide0.318367347RepublicanCenter9697NYsilent1933
1078CROSBY, Charles Noel0.318181818DemocratCenter7375PAmissionary1876
1079ESHLEMAN, Edwin Duing0.318181818RepublicanCenter9094PAgreatest1920
1080VANIK, Charles Albert0.317897372DemocratLeft8496OHgreatest1913
1081CORCORAN, Thomas Joseph0.317117117RepublicanCenter9598ILsilent1939
1082BECKER, Frank John0.316901408RepublicanCenter8388NYlost1899
1083MARTIN, Lynn Morley0.316582915RepublicanCenter97101ILsilent1939
1084MUSKIE, Edmund Sixtus0.316313823DemocratLeft8696MEgreatest1914
1085HOLLINGS, Ernest Frederick0.316205534DemocratRight90108SCgreatest1922
1086CLEVELAND, James Colgate0.315866084RepublicanCenter8896NHgreatest1920
1087GILDEA, James Hilary0.315789474DemocratLeft7475PAlost1890
1088THOMPSON, Frank, Jr.0.315718157DemocratLeft8496NJgreatest1918
1089EATON, Charles Aubrey0.315436242RepublicanCenter6982NJmissionary1868
1090DENT, John Herman0.31496063DemocratCenter8595PAgreatest1908
1091MILLER, Jack Richard0.314851485RepublicanCenter8792IAgreatest1916
1092SMITH, Howard Worth0.314763231DemocratRight7289VAlost1883
1093GRAY, Kenneth James0.314606742DemocratCenter8493ILgreatest1924
1094GRAY, Kenneth James0.314606742DemocratRight99100ILgreatest1924
1095FERGUSON, Homer Samuel0.314516129RepublicanCenter7883MIlost1889
1096MOORE, William Henson, III0.31420765RepublicanRight9499LAsilent1939
1097RIVERS, Lucius Mendel0.314199396DemocratRight7792SCgreatest1905
1098ANDREWS, Mark0.314172448RepublicanCenter8899NDgreatest1926
1099KRAMER, Kenneth Bentley0.314049587RepublicanCenter9699COsilent1942
1100YOUNG, Charles William (Bill)0.313993174RepublicanCenter92113FLsilent1930
1101BROOKS, Jack Bascom0.313953488DemocratRight83103TXgreatest1922
1102WYLIE, Chalmers Pangburn0.313868613RepublicanCenter90102OHgreatest1920
1103BAILEY, Cleveland Monroe0.31372549DemocratCenter7987WVlost1886
1104EDWARDS, Marvin Henry (Mickey)0.313577586RepublicanCenter95102OKsilent1937
1105STENNIS, John Cornelius0.313202247DemocratRight80100MSgreatest1901
1106McCLOSKEY, Paul Norton , Jr. (Pete)0.313131313RepublicanCenter9097CAgreatest1927
1107WELCH, Richard Joseph0.312977099RepublicanLeft6981CAmissionary1869
1108DICKS, Norman DeValois0.312565998DemocratCenter95112WAsilent1940
1109MILLS, William Oswald0.3125RepublicanRight9293MDgreatest1924
1110GRANDY, Frederick Lawrence0.312080537RepublicanCenter100103IAboomer1948
1111SMITH, Neal Edward0.312035661DemocratCenter86103IAgreatest1920
1112FROST, Jonas Martin0.311989101DemocratCenter96108TXsilent1942
1113BENNETT, Wallace Foster0.311914324RepublicanCenter8293UTlost1898
1114SPELLMAN, Gladys Noon0.311827957DemocratLeft9497MDgreatest1918
1115DAGUE, Paul Bartram0.311688312RepublicanCenter8089PAlost1898
1116MARTIN, Edward0.311688312RepublicanCenter8085PAmissionary1879
1117RITTER, Donald Lawrence0.311621967RepublicanCenter96102PAsilent1940
1118LOWEY, Nita M.0.311594203DemocratLeft101116NYsilent1937
1119LEVITAS, Elliott Harris0.311501597DemocratCenter9498GAsilent1930
1120HALLECK, Charles Abraham0.31147541RepublicanCenter7490INlost1900
1121RUDD, Eldon Dean0.311111111RepublicanRight9599AZgreatest1920
1122WAMPLER, William Creed0.310810811RepublicanRight8397VAgreatest1926
1123FOLEY, Thomas Stephen0.310553633DemocratCenter89103WAsilent1929
1124MYERS, John Thomas0.310480693RepublicanRight90104INgreatest1927
1125CHAVEZ, Dennis0.31043257DemocratCenter7287NMlost1888
1126O'BRIEN, Joseph John0.310344828RepublicanCenter7678NYlost1897
1127MATHEWS, Frank Asbury, Jr.0.310344828RepublicanCenter7980NJlost1890
1128BURGENER, Clair Walter0.30990991RepublicanRight9397CAgreatest1921
1129ASHURST, Henry Fountain0.309859155DemocratCenter6276AZmissionary1874
1130CHENOWETH, John Edgar0.309236948RepublicanCenter7788COlost1897
1131THOMAS, John Parnell0.309090909RepublicanCenter7581NJlost1895
1132HAMMERSCHMIDT, John Paul0.308988764RepublicanRight90102ARgreatest1922
1133RAY, John Henry0.308943089RepublicanCenter8387NYlost1886
1134GURNEY, John Chandler (Chan)0.308900524RepublicanCenter7681SDlost1896
1135JORDAN, Barbara Charline0.307917889DemocratLeft9395TXsilent1936
1136TALCOTT, Burt Lacklen0.307894737RepublicanCenter8894CAgreatest1920
1137VINSON, Frederick Moore0.307692308DemocratRight6875KYlost1890
1138LAUSCHE, Frank John0.307471264DemocratCenter8590OHlost1895
1139CONTE, Silvio Ottavio0.307362402RepublicanLeft86102MAgreatest1921
1140KYROS, Peter Nicholas0.307017544DemocratCenter9093MEgreatest1925
1141MILLIKIN, Eugene Donald0.306818182RepublicanCenter7784COlost1891
1142FUQUA, Don0.306613226DemocratRight8899FLsilent1933
1143WHITTAKER, Robert Russell0.306578947RepublicanCenter96101KSsilent1939
1144BILBRAY, James Hubert0.305841924DemocratCenter100103NVsilent1938
1145STENHOLM, Charles Walter0.305837563DemocratRight96108TXsilent1938
1146ORTIZ, Solomon P.0.305816135DemocratRight98111TXsilent1937
1147PEARSON, James Blackwood0.305714286RepublicanCenter8795KSgreatest1920
1148SPECTER, Arlen0.305511811DemocratCenter97111PAsilent1930
1149ALEXANDER, William Vollie (Bill), Jr.0.305400372DemocratRight91102ARsilent1934
1150NORRIS, George William0.305084746OtherRight5877NEmissionary1861
1151GIBBONS, Sam Melville0.304936306DemocratCenter88104FLgreatest1920
1152HIGHTOWER, Jack English0.304761905DemocratRight9498TXgreatest1926
1153SHOUP, Richard Gardner (Dick)0.3046875RepublicanRight9293MTgreatest1923
1154CHAFEE, John Hubbard0.304677623RepublicanCenter95106RIgreatest1922
1155HAMILTON, Lee Herbert0.304572271DemocratLeft89105INsilent1931
1156PETTIS, Jerry Lyle0.304545455RepublicanCenter9094CAgreatest1916
1157RYAN, William Fitts0.304511278DemocratLeft8792NYgreatest1922
1158DRIVER, William Joshua0.304347826DemocratRight6775ARmissionary1873
1159ROCKWELL, Robert Fay0.304347826RepublicanCenter7780COlost1886
1160MARRIOTT, David Daniel0.30418251RepublicanRight9598UTsilent1939
1161ENGEL, Eliot Lance0.303703704DemocratLeft101116NYboomer1947
1162TIERNAN, Robert Owens0.303482587DemocratLeft9093RIsilent1929
1163POAGE, William Robert0.303413401DemocratRight7595TXlost1899
1164EDWARDS, William Jackson (Jack)0.303064699RepublicanRight8998ALsilent1928
1165FERN�NDEZ, Joachim Octave0.303030303DemocratCenter7276LAlost1896
1166McCURDY, David Keith0.302547771DemocratCenter97103OKboomer1950
1167STEPHENS, Robert Grier, Jr.0.302452316DemocratRight8794GAgreatest1913
1168FANNIN, Paul Jones0.302447552RepublicanRight8994AZgreatest1907
1169DEWEY, Charles Schuveldt0.301886792RepublicanCenter7778ILmissionary1880
1170MOELLER, Walter Henry0.301886792DemocratCenter8689OHgreatest1910
1171JARMAN, John0.301775148RepublicanRight8293OKgreatest1915
1172HERGER, Walter William (Wally)0.301694915RepublicanRight100112CAsilent1945
1173HILL, William Silas0.301204819RepublicanCenter7785COlost1886
1174SMITH, Robert C.0.301149425RepublicanRight99107NHsilent1941
1175ERDREICH, Ben0.301094891DemocratCenter98102ALsilent1938
1176BENDER, George Harrison0.301020408RepublicanCenter7684OHlost1896
1177DYSON, Royden Patrick0.300840336DemocratCenter97101MDboomer1948
1178BADHAM, Robert Edward0.300802139RepublicanRight95100CAsilent1929
1179SOLOMON, Gerald Brooks Hunt0.300771208RepublicanCenter96105NYsilent1930
1180DENNIS, David Worth0.300518135RepublicanRight9193INgreatest1912
1181HUCKABY, Thomas Jerald0.300337458DemocratRight95102LAsilent1941
1182WILLIAMS, Harrison Arlington, Jr.0.300306435DemocratLeft8397NJgreatest1919
1183FISHER, Joseph Lyman0.300248139DemocratLeft9496VAgreatest1914
1184CULVER, John Chester0.300187617DemocratLeft8996IAsilent1932
1185de la GARZA, Eligio, II (Kika)0.300083126DemocratRight89104TXgreatest1927
1186MAHON, Gabriel Heyward, Jr.0.3DemocratRight7475SClost1889
1187LE COMPTE, Karl Miles0.3RepublicanCenter7685IAlost1887
1188VEYSEY, Victor Vincent0.3RepublicanCenter9293CAgreatest1915
1189THORNTON, Raymond Hoyt (Ray), Jr.0.3DemocratRight93104ARsilent1928
1190LIPINSKI, William Oliver0.3DemocratCenter98108ILsilent1937
1191BENTSEN, Lloyd Millard, Jr.0.299555556DemocratCenter81102TXgreatest1921
1192BUTLER, Manley Caldwell0.299307958RepublicanCenter9397VAgreatest1925
1193TANNER, John S.0.299270073DemocratRight101111TNsilent1944
1194HARRIS, Herbert Eugene, II0.298765432DemocratLeft9496VAgreatest1926
1195HOLLOWAY, Clyde Cecil0.298611111RepublicanRight100102LAsilent1943
1196BERGLAND, Robert Selmer0.298319328DemocratCenter9295MNsilent1928
1197MINISH, Joseph George0.297894737DemocratLeft8898NJgreatest1916
1198PRITCHARD, Joel McFee0.297297297RepublicanCenter9398WAgreatest1925
1199SPENCE, Floyd Davidson0.297274276RepublicanRight92107SCsilent1928
1200BROYHILL, Joel Thomas0.297169811RepublicanRight8393VAgreatest1919
1201BOLAND, Edward Patrick0.297006907DemocratLeft83100MAgreatest1911
1202LIGHTFOOT, James Ross0.296836983RepublicanCenter99104IAsilent1938
1203COUGHLIN, Robert Lawrence0.29681112RepublicanCenter91102PAsilent1929
1204SCHAEFER, Daniel0.296577947RepublicanCenter98105COsilent1936
1205DEROUNIAN, Steven Boghos0.296551724RepublicanCenter8388NYgreatest1918
1206DIGGS, Charles Coles, Jr.0.296491228DemocratLeft8496MIgreatest1922
1207McMILLAN, Thomas Sanders0.296296296DemocratRight6976SClost1888
1208RAY, Richard Belmont0.296218487DemocratRight98102GAgreatest1927
1209ABDNOR, James0.296060991RepublicanRight9399SDgreatest1923
1210WATKINS, Arthur Vivian0.295597484RepublicanCenter8085UTlost1886
1211FAWELL, Harris W.0.295121951RepublicanCenter99105ILsilent1929
1212BOREN, David Lyle0.295035461DemocratRight96103OKsilent1941
1213TREEN, David Conner0.294736842RepublicanRight9396LAsilent1928
1214DIRKSEN, Everett McKinley0.29471891RepublicanCenter7391ILlost1896
1215HARRIS, Fred Roy0.294670846DemocratCenter8992OKsilent1930
1216ANDREWS, Michael Allen0.2946593DemocratCenter98103TXsilent1944
1217CARLSON, Frank0.294332724RepublicanCenter7490KSlost1893
1218McINTYRE, Thomas James0.294202899DemocratCenter8895NHgreatest1915
1219QUINN, James Leland0.294117647DemocratLeft7475PAmissionary1875
1220BATES, George Joseph0.294117647RepublicanCenter7581MAlost1891
1221VORYS, John Martin0.294117647RepublicanCenter7685OHlost1896
1222FELLOWS, Frank0.294117647RepublicanRight7782MElost1889
1223THURMOND, James Strom0.294117647RepublicanRight8488SCgreatest1902
1224THURMOND, James Strom0.294117647RepublicanRight89107SCgreatest1902
1225DeLAY, Thomas Dale0.293969849RepublicanRight99109TXboomer1947
1226CHILES, Lawton Mainor, Jr.0.293193717DemocratRight92100FLsilent1930
1227DREIER, David Timothy0.292944785RepublicanCenter97112CAboomer1952
1228SAXBE, William Bart0.292887029RepublicanCenter9193OHgreatest1916
1229STANGELAND, Arlan Ingehart0.292547275RepublicanCenter95101MNsilent1930
1230DAUB, Harold John, Jr., (Hal)0.29233871RepublicanCenter97100NEsilent1941
1231CAMPBELL, Thomas J.0.292307692RepublicanCenter101106CAboomer1952
1232HERLONG, Albert Sydney, Jr.0.291845494DemocratRight8190FLgreatest1909
1233DORNAN, Robert Kenneth0.291721419RepublicanCenter95104CAsilent1933
1234YOUNG, Donald Edwin0.291710388RepublicanRight93116AKsilent1933
1235MURRAY, Thomas Jefferson0.291497976DemocratRight7889TNlost1894
1236WILEY, Alexander0.291457286RepublicanCenter7687WIlost1884
1237MAY, Catherine Dean0.291079812RepublicanCenter8691WAgreatest1914
1238BRIDGES, Henry Styles (Styles)0.291021672RepublicanCenter7587NHlost1898
1239GUYER, Tennyson0.290948276RepublicanCenter9397OHgreatest1913
1240GETTYS, Thomas Smithwick0.290836653DemocratRight8993SCgreatest1912
1241GEARHART, Bertrand Wesley0.290780142RepublicanCenter7480CAlost1890
1242OWEN, Emmett Marshall0.290322581DemocratRight7376GAmissionary1877
1243BARNARD, Druie Douglas, Jr.0.290285714DemocratRight95102GAgreatest1922
1244CARNEY, William0.290060852RepublicanCenter9699NYsilent1942
1245BEREUTER, Douglas Kent0.289962825RepublicanCenter96108NEsilent1939
1246CRAIG, Larry Edwin0.28983308RepublicanCenter97110IDsilent1945
1247MORRIS, Thomas Gayle0.289772727DemocratRight8690NMgreatest1919
1248LEATH, James Marvin0.289732771DemocratRight96101TXsilent1931
1249PICKETT, Owen Bradford0.289655172DemocratRight100106VAsilent1930
1250SIKES, Robert Lee Fulton0.289299868DemocratRight7795FLgreatest1906
1251BOEHLERT, Sherwood Louis0.289134438RepublicanCenter98109NYsilent1936
1252DAVIS, John William0.288961039DemocratRight8793GAgreatest1916
1253McMILLEN, Rolla Coral0.288888889RepublicanCenter7881ILmissionary1880
1254LOEFFLER, Thomas Gilbert0.288617886RepublicanRight9699TXboomer1946
1255JOHNSON, Nancy Lee0.288354898RepublicanCenter98109CTsilent1935
1256LOTT, Chester Trent0.288240495RepublicanRight93110MSsilent1941
1257SCHULZE, Richard Taylor0.288235294RepublicanCenter94102PAsilent1929
1258MAGNUSON, Warren Grant0.288065844DemocratCenter7596WAgreatest1905
1259MANN, James Robert0.287917738DemocratCenter9195SCgreatest1920
1260SKELTON, Isaac Newton, IV (Ike)0.287912088DemocratRight95111MOsilent1931
1261CHAPPELL, William Venroe, Jr.0.287907869DemocratRight91100FLgreatest1922
1262ARMEY, Richard Keith0.287804878RepublicanRight99107TXsilent1940
1263WYATT, Wendell0.286307054RepublicanCenter8993ORgreatest1917
1264DOWNING, Thomas Nelms0.28604119DemocratRight8694VAgreatest1919
1265BOYLAN, John Joseph0.285714286DemocratLeft6875NYmissionary1878
1266HANCOCK, Franklin Wills, Jr.0.285714286DemocratCenter7175NClost1894
1267KNIFFIN, Frank Charles0.285714286DemocratCenter7275OHlost1894
1268CONNERY, Lawrence Joseph0.285714286DemocratLeft7577MAlost1895
1269PATTEN, Harold Ambrose0.285714286DemocratCenter8183AZgreatest1907
1270MITCHELL, Harlan Erwin0.285714286DemocratRight8586GAgreatest1924
1271TUTEN, James Russell0.285714286DemocratRight8889GAgreatest1911
1272ROTH, William Victor, Jr.0.285599356RepublicanCenter90106DEgreatest1921
1273HELMS, Jesse0.285014691RepublicanRight93107NCgreatest1921
1274ANGELL, Homer Daniel0.284810127RepublicanCenter7683ORmissionary1875
1275DOW, John Goodchild0.284722222DemocratLeft8992NYgreatest1905
1276COBLE, Howard0.284671533RepublicanRight99113NCsilent1931
1277STEARNS, Clifford Bundy0.284671533RepublicanRight101112FLsilent1941
1278BROWN, Clarence J., Jr.0.284649776RepublicanCenter8997OHgreatest1927
1279BYRON, Beverly Barton Butcher0.284438776DemocratRight96102MDsilent1932
1280HUNTER, John Feeney0.283950617DemocratLeft7577OHlost1896
1281CHAPPIE, Eugene A.0.283489097RepublicanCenter9799CAgreatest1920
1282HALL, Edwin Arthur0.283333333RepublicanCenter7682NYgreatest1909
1283MURPHY, Morgan Francis0.283168317DemocratCenter9296ILsilent1932
1284GATHINGS, Ezekiel Candler0.283163265DemocratRight7690ARgreatest1903
1285DAVIS, Robert William0.283068783RepublicanCenter96102MIsilent1932
1286ABERCROMBIE, Neil0.282608696DemocratLeft99111HIsilent1938
1287MEYERS, Jan0.282555283RepublicanCenter99104KSsilent1928
1288POLK, James Gould0.282442748DemocratCenter7286OHlost1896
1289LUNGREN, Daniel Edward0.282208589RepublicanCenter96112CAboomer1946
1290BEALL, James Glenn0.281690141RepublicanCenter7888MDlost1894
1291DOMINICK, Peter Hoyt0.281639929RepublicanCenter8793COgreatest1915
1292MYERS, Gary Arthur0.28125RepublicanCenter9495PAsilent1937
1293McCLURE, James Albertus0.281128405RepublicanRight90101IDgreatest1924
1294PASHAYAN, Charles, Jr.0.280898876RepublicanCenter96101CAsilent1941
1295RAMEY, Homer Alonzo0.280701754RepublicanCenter7880OHlost1891
1296PACKWOOD, Robert William0.280477408RepublicanCenter91104ORsilent1932
1297EVANS, Billy Lee0.280205656DemocratRight9597GAsilent1941
1298BILIRAKIS, Michael0.280148423RepublicanCenter98109FLsilent1930
1299McGRATH, John Joseph0.28DemocratLeft7375CAmissionary1872
1300O'CONNOR, John Joseph0.28DemocratLeft6875NYlost1885
1301McREYNOLDS, Samuel Davis0.28DemocratRight6876TNmissionary1872
1302GALE, Richard Pillsbury0.28RepublicanCenter7778MNlost1900
1303MEADER, George0.27972028RepublicanCenter8288MIgreatest1907
1304FENTON, Ivor David0.278810409RepublicanCenter7687PAlost1889
1305FIELDS, Jack Milton, Jr.0.278713629RepublicanRight97104TXboomer1952
1306BAKER, Howard Henry0.278571429RepublicanCenter8288TNgreatest1902
1307WESTLAND, Alfred John (Jack)0.278571429RepublicanCenter8388WAgreatest1904
1308McMILLEN, Charles Thomas0.27852349DemocratCenter100102MDboomer1952
1309DERWINSKI, Edward Joseph0.278465347RepublicanCenter8697ILgreatest1926
1310BOGGS, Corinne Claiborne (Lindy)0.278152069DemocratRight93101LAgreatest1916
1311PICKLE, James Jarrell (Jake)0.278070836DemocratRight88103TXgreatest1913
1312LEGGETT, Robert Louis0.277886497DemocratCenter8895CAgreatest1926
1313JENCKES, Virginia Ellis0.277777778DemocratLeft7375INmissionary1877
1314GOLDSBOROUGH, Thomas Alan0.277777778DemocratCenter6776MDmissionary1877
1315DOWNEY, Sheridan0.277777778DemocratCenter7681CAlost1884
1316HANSEN, James Vear0.277070064RepublicanRight97107UTsilent1932
1317MICHEL, Robert Henry0.277046784RepublicanCenter85103ILgreatest1923
1318STEED, Thomas Jefferson0.277018634DemocratRight8196OKgreatest1904
1319MINK, Patsy Takemoto0.276960784DemocratLeft89107HIgreatest1927
1320COLE, William Sterling0.276923077RepublicanCenter7485NYgreatest1904
1321KEMP, Jack French0.276663147RepublicanCenter92100NYsilent1935
1322COLEMAN, Earl Thomas0.276663147RepublicanCenter95102MOsilent1943
1323ANDERSON, John Zuinglius0.276595745RepublicanCenter7682CAgreatest1904
1324ROWLAND, James Roy, Jr.0.276243094DemocratRight98103GAgreatest1926
1325HARVEY, James0.275985663RepublicanCenter8793MIgreatest1922
1326BAKER, Richard Hugh0.275985663RepublicanRight100110LAboomer1948
1327McCANDLESS, Alfred A.0.275605214RepublicanCenter98103CAgreatest1927
1328KEARNS, Carroll Dudley0.275362319RepublicanCenter8087PAlost1900
1329LIEBERMAN, Joseph I.0.275280899DemocratLeft101112CTsilent1942
1330BURTON, Danny Lee0.27458256RepublicanRight98112INsilent1938
1331MONKIEWICZ, Boleslaus Joseph0.274509804RepublicanCenter7678CTlost1898
1332ROLPH, Thomas0.274509804RepublicanCenter7778CAlost1885
1333GREEN, William Joseph0.274509804DemocratLeft8894PAsilent1938
1334WHITE, Richard Crawford0.27443609DemocratRight8997TXgreatest1923
1335ANNUNZIO, Frank0.274231678DemocratCenter89102ILgreatest1915
1336JONES, Paul Caruthers0.273913043DemocratRight8190MOgreatest1901
1337HALL, Ralph Moody0.27388535RepublicanRight97108TXgreatest1923
1338CONDIT, Gary Adrian0.273809524DemocratCenter101107CAboomer1948
1339REGULA, Ralph Straus0.273757629RepublicanCenter93110OHgreatest1924
1340EVERETT, Robert Ashton0.273195876DemocratRight8591TNgreatest1915
1341SARASIN, Ronald Arthur0.272988506RepublicanCenter9395CTsilent1934
1342McKAY, Koln Gunn0.272904483DemocratRight9296UTgreatest1925
1343SCOTT, Hardie0.272727273RepublicanCenter8082PAgreatest1907
1344TAUZIN, Wilbert Joseph (Billy)0.272727273RepublicanRight96104LAsilent1943
1345HARRIS, Claude, Jr.0.272727273DemocratRight100102ALsilent1940
1346DURENBERGER, David Ferdinand0.272596844RepublicanCenter96103MNsilent1934
1347PORTER, John Edward0.271816881RepublicanCenter96106ILsilent1935
1348BOREN, Lyle H.0.270833333DemocratRight7579OKgreatest1909
1349BREAUX, John Berlinger0.270038168DemocratRight92108LAsilent1944
1350GRADISON, Willis David, Jr.0.269932757RepublicanCenter94103OHsilent1928
1351BROCK, William Emerson, III0.269662921RepublicanCenter8894TNsilent1930
1352SANDERS, Morgan Gurley0.269230769DemocratRight6775TXmissionary1878
1353WILSON, Joseph Franklin0.269230769DemocratRight8083TXgreatest1901
1354HANSEN, Clifford Peter0.268965517RepublicanCenter9095WYgreatest1912
1355ANDERSON, John Bayard0.268835616RepublicanCenter8796ILgreatest1922
1356LONG, Gillis William0.26874116DemocratRight8899LAgreatest1923
1357BAILEY, Donald Allen0.26848249DemocratRight9697PAsilent1945
1358KAZEN, Abraham, Jr.0.2681764DemocratRight9098TXgreatest1919
1359LLOYD, James Fredrick0.268170426DemocratLeft9496CAgreatest1922
1360NUNN, Samuel Augustus0.267961165DemocratRight93104GAsilent1938
1361HORAN, Walter Franklin (Walt)0.267942584RepublicanCenter7888WAlost1898
1362MASSINGALE, Samuel Chapman0.267857143DemocratCenter7477OKmissionary1870
1363O'BRIEN, George Donoghue0.267716535DemocratLeft7583MIlost1900
1364LUKENS, Donald Edgar0.267558528RepublicanCenter90101OHsilent1931
1365ROSTENKOWSKI, Daniel David0.26743295DemocratCenter86103ILsilent1928
1366NEDZI, Lucien Norbert0.267142857DemocratCenter8796MIgreatest1925
1367CEDERBERG, Elford Albin0.266968326RepublicanCenter8395MIgreatest1918
1368ZEFERETTI, Leo C.0.266949153DemocratCenter9497NYgreatest1927
1369QUAYLE, James Danforth (Dan)0.266937669RepublicanCenter95101INboomer1947
1370BARTLETT, Dewey Follett0.266211604RepublicanRight9395OKgreatest1919
1371JONES, Ben0.26618705DemocratLeft101102GAsilent1941
1372MIZE, Chester Louis0.266129032RepublicanRight8991KSgreatest1917
1373SHRIVER, Garner E.0.266055046RepublicanCenter8794KSgreatest1912
1374EMERSON, Norvell William (Bill)0.265940902RepublicanCenter97104MOsilent1938
1375HARDEN, Cecil Murray0.265822785RepublicanCenter8185INlost1894
1376SLACK, John Mark, Jr.0.26510989DemocratRight8696WVgreatest1915
1377COLE, William Purington, Jr.0.265060241DemocratCenter7077MDlost1889
1378MURTHA, John Patrick, Jr.0.264814815DemocratRight93111PAsilent1932
1379STANTON, James Vincent0.264705882DemocratCenter9294OHsilent1932
1380SISISKY, Norman0.264705882DemocratCenter98107VAgreatest1927
1381WHALLEY, John Irving0.26446281RepublicanCenter8792PAgreatest1902
1382BARRY, William Bernard0.264150943DemocratLeft7479NYgreatest1902
1383CAMPBELL, Carroll Ashmore, Jr.0.263829787RepublicanRight9699SCsilent1940
1384SYMINGTON, James Wadsworth0.263779528DemocratCenter9194MOgreatest1927
1385SILJANDER, Mark Deli0.263473054RepublicanCenter9799MIboomer1951
1386SHELBY, Richard C.0.263420724RepublicanRight96103ALsilent1934
1387GUDE, Gilbert0.263322884RepublicanLeft9094MDgreatest1923
1388MEEKS, James Andrew0.263157895DemocratCenter7375ILmissionary1864
1389HIGGINS, John Patrick0.263157895DemocratLeft7475MAlost1893
1390HARLAN, Byron Berry0.263157895DemocratLeft7275OHlost1886
1391KLOEB, Frank Le Blond0.263157895DemocratCenter7375OHlost1890
1392NORMAN, Fred Barthold0.263157895RepublicanCenter7880WAmissionary1882
1393HUNT, Lester Callaway0.263157895DemocratCenter8183WYlost1892
1394WHITEHURST, George William0.262648009RepublicanRight9199VAgreatest1925
1395DEMPSEY, John Joseph0.262626263DemocratCenter7485NMmissionary1879
1396FASCELL, Dante Bruno0.262577533DemocratCenter84102FLgreatest1917
1397DARDEN, George (Buddy)0.262472885DemocratRight98103GAsilent1943
1398RINALDO, Matthew John0.262467192RepublicanCenter93102NJsilent1931
1399WEBER, John Vincent (Vin)0.261941448RepublicanCenter97102MNboomer1952
1400UPTON, Frederick Stephen0.261744966RepublicanCenter100116MIboomer1953
1401GRAMM, William Philip (Phil)0.26163522RepublicanRight9697TXsilent1942
1402GRAMM, William Philip (Phil)0.26163522RepublicanRight98107TXsilent1942
1403AUSTIN, Warren Robinson0.261627907RepublicanCenter7279VTmissionary1877
1404PERCY, Charles Harting0.261627907RepublicanCenter9098ILgreatest1919
1405SMITH, Christopher Henry0.26146789RepublicanCenter97116NJboomer1953
1406DANIELSON, George Elmore0.261437908DemocratCenter9297CAgreatest1915
1407EVANS, Daniel Jackson0.261290323RepublicanCenter98100WAgreatest1925
1408POWELL, Adam Clayton, Jr.0.261111111DemocratLeft7991NYgreatest1908
1409GEKAS, George William0.261029412RepublicanCenter98107PAsilent1930
1410TOLAN, John Harvey0.260869565DemocratLeft7479CAmissionary1877
1411COATS, Daniel Ray0.260806916RepublicanCenter97114INsilent1943
1412KUNKEL, John Crain0.260700389RepublicanCenter7689PAlost1898
1413McEWEN, Robert Cameron0.260434057RepublicanCenter8996NYgreatest1920
1414TOWER, John Goodwin0.260299625RepublicanCenter8798TXgreatest1925
1415LEWIS, Thomas F.0.260147601RepublicanCenter98103FLgreatest1924
1416BRAMBLETT, Ernest King0.26RepublicanCenter8083CAgreatest1901
1417KASSEBAUM, Nancy Landon0.259887006RepublicanCenter96104KSsilent1932
1418FISH, Hamilton, Jr.0.259882254RepublicanCenter91103NYgreatest1926
1419RUPPE, Philip Edward0.259345794RepublicanCenter9095MIgreatest1926
1420SCHAEFER, Edwin Martin0.259259259DemocratCenter7377ILlost1887
1421SWINDALL, Patrick Lynn0.259259259RepublicanRight99100GAboomer1950
1422COMBEST, Larry Ed0.259079903RepublicanRight99108TXsilent1945
1423SAWYER, Harold Samuel0.258687259RepublicanCenter9598MIgreatest1920
1424VAN ZANDT, James Edward0.258474576RepublicanCenter7687PAlost1898
1425BAUMHART, Albert David, Jr.0.258426966RepublicanCenter7786OHgreatest1908
1426MARTIN, Joseph William, Jr.0.258389262RepublicanCenter6989MAlost1884
1427HORTON, Frank Jefferson0.258262875RepublicanLeft88102NYgreatest1919
1428IRELAND, Andrew Poysell (Andy)0.257882883RepublicanRight9598FLsilent1930
1429IRELAND, Andrew Poysell (Andy)0.257882883RepublicanCenter99102FLsilent1930
1430SCHNEEBELI, Herman Theodore0.257611241RepublicanCenter8694PAgreatest1907
1431BUSH, George Herbert Walker0.257575758RepublicanCenter9091TXgreatest1924
1432GRAHAM, Daniel Robert (Bob)0.25732899DemocratLeft100108FLsilent1936
1433BOWEN, David Reece0.257246377DemocratRight9397MSsilent1932
1434HALL, Leonard Wood0.257142857RepublicanCenter7682NYlost1900
1435HEINZ, Henry John, III0.257142857RepublicanCenter92102PAsilent1938
1436LONG, Jill Lynette0.257142857DemocratCenter101103INboomer1952
1437ROBINSON, Tommy Franklin0.25698324RepublicanCenter99100ARsilent1942
1438STAFFORD, Robert Theodore0.256855576RepublicanCenter87100VTgreatest1913
1439VUCANOVICH, Barbara Farrell0.256457565RepublicanCenter98104NVgreatest1921
1440LANCASTER, H. Martin0.255972696DemocratCenter100103NCsilent1943
1441CURTIN, Willard Sevier0.255681818RepublicanCenter8589PAgreatest1905
1442WELDON, Wayne Curtis (Curt)0.255172414RepublicanCenter100109PAboomer1947
1443EVANS, Frank Edward0.255102041DemocratCenter8995COgreatest1923
1444CLINGER, William Floyd, Jr.0.254950495RepublicanCenter96104PAsilent1929
1445BOLTON, Oliver Payne0.254901961RepublicanCenter8388OHgreatest1917
1446TYDINGS, Joseph Davies0.254807692DemocratLeft8991MDsilent1928
1447GRANT, George McInvale0.254752852DemocratRight7588ALlost1897
1448CHANDLER, Rodney Dennis0.254752852RepublicanCenter98102WAsilent1942
1449GINGRICH, Newton Leroy0.254545455RepublicanCenter96105GAsilent1943
1450CHENEY, Richard Bruce0.254372019RepublicanRight96101WYsilent1941
1451MILLER, John Ripin0.254278729RepublicanCenter99102WAsilent1938
1452HUMPHREY, Hubert Horatio, Jr.0.254237288DemocratLeft8195MNgreatest1911
1453ROGERS, Harold Dallas (Hal)0.253456221RepublicanRight97116KYsilent1937
1454VAN DEERLIN, Lionel0.253373313DemocratLeft8896CAgreatest1914
1455BRADEMAS, John0.253213368DemocratLeft8696INgreatest1927
1456McEWEN, Bob0.253205128RepublicanRight97102OHboomer1950
1457PACKARD, Ronald C.0.252788104RepublicanRight98106CAsilent1931
1458DioGUARDI, Joseph J.0.252747253RepublicanCenter99100NYsilent1940
1459BUNNING, James Paul David0.252595156RepublicanRight100111KYsilent1931
1460HEFLEY, Joel M.0.252559727RepublicanRight100109COsilent1935
1461BONNER, Herbert Covington0.251937984DemocratRight7689NClost1891
1462BUCHANAN, John Hall, Jr.0.251862891RepublicanCenter8996ALsilent1928
1463FINDLEY, Paul0.251807229RepublicanCenter8797ILgreatest1921
1464PALLONE, Frank, Jr.0.251798561DemocratLeft101116NJboomer1951
1465HASTINGS, James Fred0.251141553RepublicanCenter9194NYgreatest1926
1466JOHNSON, Albert Walter0.250696379RepublicanCenter8894PAgreatest1906
1467COURTER, James Andrew0.250372578RepublicanCenter96101NJsilent1941
1468BANKHEAD, William Brockman0.25DemocratRight6576ALmissionary1874
1469FULLER, Claude Albert0.25DemocratRight7175ARmissionary1876
1470CONNERY, William Patrick, Jr.0.25DemocratLeft6875MAlost1888
1471MALONEY, Francis Thomas0.25DemocratLeft7379CTlost1894
1472BURKE, Edward Raymond0.25DemocratLeft7376NEmissionary1880
1473GERRY, Peter Goelet0.25DemocratLeft6379RImissionary1879
1474BUCK, Ellsworth Brewer0.25RepublicanCenter7880NYlost1892
1475LUCAS, Wingate Hezekiah0.25DemocratRight8083TXgreatest1908
1476STANLEY, Thomas Bahnson0.25DemocratRight8083VAlost1890
1477JAMES, Benjamin Franklin0.25RepublicanCenter8185PAlost1885
1478BARTLETT, Edward Lewis (Bob)0.25DemocratCenter8690AKgreatest1904
1479WIGGLESWORTH, Richard Bowditch0.248927039RepublicanCenter7085MAlost1891
1480CASE, Clifford Philip0.248756219RepublicanLeft7995NJgreatest1904
1481LAXALT, Paul Dominque0.248686515RepublicanCenter9399NVgreatest1922
1482LEWIS, Charles Jeremy (Jerry)0.24863388RepublicanCenter96112CAsilent1934
1483SCHUETTE, Bill0.248571429RepublicanCenter99101MIboomer1953
1484CHAMBERLAIN, Charles Ernest0.248157248RepublicanCenter8593MIgreatest1917
1485BOULTER, Eldon Beau0.248062016RepublicanRight99100TXsilent1942
1486SANDMAN, Charles William, Jr.0.247619048RepublicanCenter9093NJgreatest1921
1487SAIKI, Patricia0.247011952RepublicanCenter100101HIsilent1930
1488BALLENGER, Cass0.246575342RepublicanCenter100108NCgreatest1926
1489COX, Charles Christopher0.246376812RepublicanRight101109CAboomer1952
1490BROWN, Prentiss Marsh0.245762712DemocratLeft7377MIlost1889
1491FIEDLER, Bobbi0.244956772RepublicanCenter9799CAsilent1937
1492BROOKS, Overton0.244725738DemocratRight7587LAlost1897
1493HUNTER, Duncan Lee0.244548287RepublicanRight97110CAboomer1948
1494WOOD, Reuben Terrell0.244444444DemocratLeft7376MOlost1884
1495JOHNSTON, Harry A., II0.244444444DemocratLeft101104FLsilent1931
1496MOSS, John Emerson0.244147157DemocratLeft8395CAgreatest1915
1497PERKINS, Carl Dewey0.244101633DemocratCenter8198KYgreatest1912
1498VANDER VEEN, Richard Franklin0.244094488DemocratLeft9394MIgreatest1922
1499BYRNES, John William0.243781095RepublicanCenter7992WIgreatest1913
1500THOMAS, William Marshall0.243455497RepublicanCenter96109CAsilent1941
1501HILER, John Patrick0.242975207RepublicanCenter97101INboomer1953
1502BELL, Alphonzo0.242937853RepublicanCenter8794CAgreatest1914
1503KILBURN, Clarence Evans0.242424242RepublicanRight7688NYlost1893
1504JAVITS, Jacob Koppel0.242362525RepublicanLeft8096NYgreatest1904
1505HENDON, William Martin0.242152466RepublicanCenter9799NCsilent1944
1506HICKENLOOPER, Bourke Blakemore0.241935484RepublicanCenter7990IAlost1896
1507LAGOMARSINO, Robert John0.241877256RepublicanCenter93102CAgreatest1926
1508HINSHAW, John Carl Williams0.241830065RepublicanCenter7684CAlost1894
1509O'LEARY, James Aloysius0.241758242DemocratLeft7478NYlost1889
1510CUNNINGHAM, Paul Harvey0.241758242RepublicanCenter7785IAlost1890
1511ELLSWORTH, Mathew Harris0.241758242RepublicanCenter7884ORlost1899
1512MACDONALD, Torbert Hart0.241645244DemocratLeft8494MAgreatest1917
1513EVINS, Joseph Landon0.241457859DemocratRight8094TNgreatest1910
1514SUTPHIN, William Halstead0.24137931DemocratLeft7277NJlost1887
1515HILLIS, Elwood Haynes0.241038319RepublicanCenter9299INgreatest1926
1516POULSON, C. Norris0.240740741RepublicanCenter7883CAlost1895
1517HATCHER, Charles Floyd0.240418118DemocratRight97102GAsilent1939
1518BUTTON, Daniel Evan0.24RepublicanLeft9091NYgreatest1917
1519McDADE, Joseph Michael0.239656518RepublicanCenter88105PAsilent1931
1520BALL, Joseph Hurst0.239583333RepublicanCenter7680MNgreatest1905
1521DAWSON, William Adams0.23943662RepublicanCenter8085UTgreatest1903
1522SUNDQUIST, Donald Kenneth0.239332096RepublicanCenter98103TNsilent1936
1523THOMAS, Robert Lindsay0.238970588DemocratRight98102GAsilent1943
1524CORMAN, James Charles0.238912732DemocratLeft8796CAgreatest1920
1525JACOBSEN, William Sebastian0.23880597DemocratLeft7577IAlost1887
1526LE FEVRE, Jay0.23880597RepublicanCenter7881NYlost1893
1527BARTON, Joe Linus0.23857868RepublicanRight99115TXboomer1949
1528GILMAN, Benjamin Arthur0.23826087RepublicanCenter93107NYgreatest1922
1529CARTWRIGHT, Wilburn0.238095238DemocratRight7077OKlost1892
1530GREEVER, Paul Ranous0.238095238DemocratCenter7475WYlost1891
1531RILEY, John Jacob0.238095238DemocratRight7987SClost1895
1532HENDRICKSON, Robert Clymer0.238095238RepublicanCenter8183NJlost1898
1533REID, Ogden Rogers0.238095238DemocratLeft8892NYgreatest1925
1534PASTORE, John Orlando0.237777778DemocratLeft8194RIgreatest1907
1535WILSON, Charles Herbert0.237735849DemocratCenter8896CAgreatest1917
1536TRIBLE, Paul Seward, Jr.0.237583893RepublicanRight95100VAboomer1946
1537WYDLER, John Waldemar0.237366003RepublicanCenter8896NYgreatest1924
1538INHOFE, James Mountain0.237288136RepublicanRight100116OKsilent1934
1539VAN NUYS, Frederick0.237037037DemocratCenter7378INmissionary1874
1540YARBOROUGH, Ralph Webster0.236907731DemocratRight8591TXgreatest1903
1541KOPPLEMANN, Herman Paul0.236842105DemocratLeft7379CTmissionary1880
1542STONE, Richard Bernard0.23655914DemocratRight9496FLsilent1928
1543DOLE, Robert Joseph0.236453202RepublicanCenter87104KSgreatest1923
1544NELSON, Clarence William (Bill)0.236147757DemocratCenter96115FLsilent1942
1545HANLEY, James Michael0.236070381DemocratCenter8996NYgreatest1920
1546ARENDS, Leslie Cornelius0.235897436RepublicanCenter7493ILlost1895
1547ROHRABACHER, Dana0.235714286RepublicanRight101115CAboomer1947
1548GOSS, Porter J.0.235714286RepublicanCenter101108FLsilent1938
1549McCLORY, Robert0.235449735RepublicanCenter8897ILgreatest1908
1550MOORHEAD, William Singer0.23537415DemocratLeft8696PAgreatest1923
1551MILLER, Thomas Byron0.235294118RepublicanCenter7778PAlost1896
1552LAUGHLIN, Gregory H.0.235294118RepublicanRight101104TXsilent1942
1553PEYSER, Peter A.0.235023041DemocratLeft9294NYgreatest1921
1554PEYSER, Peter A.0.235023041DemocratLeft9697NYgreatest1921
1555McGRATH, Raymond Joseph0.234548336RepublicanCenter97102NYsilent1942
1556POTTER, Charles Edward0.234375RepublicanCenter8085MIgreatest1916
1557HUTTO, Earl Dewitt0.234314981DemocratRight96103FLgreatest1926
1558LIVINGSTON, Robert Linlithgow, Jr.0.234042553RepublicanRight95106LAsilent1943
1559HUMPHREY, Gordon John0.234042553RepublicanRight96101NHsilent1940
1560STUBBLEFIELD, Frank Albert0.233802817DemocratRight8693KYgreatest1907
1561MACHTLEY, Ronald K.0.233576642RepublicanCenter101103RIboomer1948
1562COHEN, William Sebastian0.233429395RepublicanCenter93104MEsilent1940
1563DULSKI, Thaddeus Joseph0.233421751DemocratCenter8693NYgreatest1915
1564FORD, Aaron Lane0.233333333DemocratRight7477MSgreatest1903
1565HARTNETT, Thomas Forbes0.233226837RepublicanRight9799SCsilent1941
1566NORRELL, William Frank0.233183857DemocratRight7687ARlost1896
1567EVANS, Thomas Beverley, Jr.0.233173077RepublicanCenter9597DEsilent1931
1568FRANKLIN, William Webster0.233050847RepublicanRight9899MSsilent1941
1569WHELCHEL, Benjamin Frank0.233009709DemocratRight7478GAlost1895
1570KOLBE, James Thomas0.233009709RepublicanCenter99109AZsilent1942
1571RHODES, John Jacob0.232613909RepublicanCenter8397AZgreatest1916
1572TALBOT, Joseph Edward0.23255814RepublicanCenter7779CTgreatest1901
1573WADSWORTH, James Wolcott, Jr.0.232394366RepublicanCenter6481NYmissionary1877
1574McANDREWS, James0.232142857DemocratLeft5776ILmissionary1862
1575VANDER JAGT, Guy Adrian0.232081911RepublicanCenter89102MIsilent1931
1576BIESTER, Edward George, Jr.0.231974922RepublicanCenter9094PAsilent1931
1577MORTON, Rogers Clark Ballard0.231788079RepublicanCenter8892MDgreatest1914
1578ALLOTT, Gordon Llewellyn0.23136646RepublicanCenter8492COgreatest1907
1579FINO, Paul Albert0.230769231RepublicanCenter8390NYgreatest1913
1580BROWN, Garry Eldridge0.230769231RepublicanCenter9095MIgreatest1923
1581O'BRIEN, George Miller0.230452675RepublicanCenter9399ILgreatest1917
1582BARTLETT, Harry Stephen (Steve)0.23015873RepublicanRight98102TXboomer1947
1583HICKS, Floyd Verne0.230136986DemocratCenter8994WAgreatest1915
1584SHAW, Eugene Clay, Jr.0.229938272RepublicanCenter97109FLsilent1939
1585MEEDS, Edwin Lloyd0.22983871DemocratCenter8995WAgreatest1927
1586KASICH, John Richard0.229357798RepublicanRight98106OHboomer1952
1587SWEENEY, David McCann (Mac)0.229249012RepublicanRight99100TXboomer1955
1588GEYER, Lee Edward0.229166667DemocratLeft7677CAlost1888
1589CABELL, Earle0.229050279DemocratRight8992TXgreatest1906
1590SMITH, Ellison DuRant0.228813559DemocratLeft6178SCmissionary1864
1591PAXON, L. William0.228571429RepublicanCenter101105NYboomer1954
1592MURRAY, James Edward0.22826087DemocratCenter7386MTmissionary1876
1593NIX, Robert Nelson Cornelius, Sr.0.22810219DemocratLeft8595PAlost1898
1594WINN, Edward Lawrence, Jr. (Larry)0.227941176RepublicanCenter9098KSgreatest1919
1595BROWDER, John Glen0.227941176DemocratRight101104ALsilent1943
1596MOLINARI, Guy Victor0.227598566RepublicanCenter97101NYsilent1928
1597DUNCAN, Robert Blackford0.22737819DemocratCenter8896ORgreatest1920
1598ROWLAND, John0.227146814RepublicanCenter99101CTboomer1957
1599KARTH, Joseph Edward0.226950355DemocratLeft8694MNgreatest1922
1600KENNEDY, Martin John0.226804124DemocratLeft7178NYlost1892
1601HASTERT, John Dennis0.226804124RepublicanCenter100110ILsilent1942
1602O'MAHONEY, Joseph Christopher0.226586103DemocratCenter7386WYlost1884
1603ARMSTRONG, William Lester0.226537217RepublicanRight93101COsilent1937
1604STEELE, Robert Hampton0.226277372RepublicanLeft9193CTsilent1938
1605SARPALIUS, William0.226277372DemocratRight101103TXboomer1948
1606BOGGS, James Caleb0.226039783RepublicanCenter8092DEgreatest1909
1607FULLER, Hadwen Carlton0.225806452RepublicanRight7880NYlost1895
1608WILLIAMS, Lawrence Gordon0.225806452RepublicanCenter9093PAgreatest1913
1609KEATING, William John0.225806452RepublicanCenter9293OHgreatest1927
1610PETTIS, Shirley Neil0.225806452RepublicanCenter9495CAgreatest1924
1611HOLT, Joseph Franklin, III0.225352113RepublicanCenter8386CAgreatest1924
1612MADIGAN, Edward Rell0.224903475RepublicanCenter93102ILsilent1936
1613VIGORITO, Joseph Phillip0.224431818DemocratCenter8994PAgreatest1918
1614LENT, Norman Frederick0.22433132RepublicanCenter92102NYsilent1931
1615ANDERSON, Clinton Presba0.22392638DemocratCenter7792NMlost1895
1616TOWE, Harry Lancaster0.223880597RepublicanCenter7882NJlost1898
1617CALLAHAN, Herbert Leon (Sonny)0.223880597RepublicanRight99107ALsilent1932
1618OXLEY, Michael Garver0.223809524RepublicanCenter97109OHsilent1944
1619SCUDDER, Hubert Baxter0.223684211RepublicanCenter8185CAlost1888
1620SAXTON, Hugh James0.223587224RepublicanCenter99110NJsilent1943
1621HEFLIN, Howell Thomas0.223300971DemocratRight96104ALgreatest1921
1622COFFEE, John Main0.223140496DemocratLeft7579WAlost1897
1623ESCH, Marvin Leonel0.223076923RepublicanCenter9094MIgreatest1927
1624FARY, John G.0.222707424DemocratCenter9497ILgreatest1911
1625PARRIS, Stanford E.0.222551929RepublicanCenter93101VAsilent1929
1626FORD, Leland Merritt0.222222222RepublicanRight7677CAlost1893
1627MILLS, Wilbur Daigh0.221631206DemocratRight7694ARgreatest1909
1628WIER, Roy William0.221052632DemocratLeft8186MNlost1888
1629BUECHNER, John William (Jack)0.220883534RepublicanCenter100101MOsilent1940
1630PAYNE, Lewis Franklin, Jr.0.220779221DemocratCenter100104VAsilent1945
1631KYL, Jon Llewellyn0.218855219RepublicanRight100115AZsilent1942
1632COCHRAN, William Thad0.218402427RepublicanRight93115MSsilent1937
1633GOODWIN, Angier Louis0.218390805RepublicanCenter7883MAmissionary1881
1634COLLINS, Ross Alexander0.218181818DemocratRight6777MSmissionary1880
1635GIAIMO, Robert Nicholas0.218045113DemocratCenter8696CTgreatest1919
1636CONABLE, Barber Benjamin, Jr.0.217977528RepublicanCenter8998NYgreatest1922
1637NORBLAD, Albin Walter, Jr.0.217877095RepublicanCenter7988ORgreatest1908
1638COSTELLO, John Martin0.217821782DemocratCenter7478CAgreatest1903
1639McCOLLUM, Ira William, Jr. (Bill)0.217527387RepublicanCenter97106FLsilent1944
1640RAILSBACK, Thomas Fisher0.217455621RepublicanCenter9097ILsilent1932
1641HUNTER, Allan Oakley0.217391304RepublicanCenter8283CAgreatest1916
1642PARKER, Michael (Mike)0.217391304RepublicanRight101104MSboomer1949
1643WOLVERTON, Charles Anderson0.21719457RepublicanCenter7085NJmissionary1880
1644DELLENBACK, John Richard0.217021277RepublicanCenter9093ORgreatest1918
1645WIGGINS, Charles Edward0.216470588RepublicanCenter9095CAgreatest1927
1646SCHMITT, Harrison Hagan0.216117216RepublicanCenter9597NMsilent1935
1647JAMES, Craig T.0.215827338RepublicanCenter101102FLsilent1941
1648DELANEY, James Joseph0.215714286DemocratCenter7995NYgreatest1901
1649du PONT, Pierre Samuel, IV0.215517241RepublicanCenter9294DEsilent1935
1650GIBSON, John Strickland0.215384615DemocratRight7779GAlost1893
1651SMITH, John Joseph0.215189873DemocratLeft7477CTgreatest1904
1652WALLOP, Malcolm0.21509434RepublicanRight95103WYsilent1933
1653MACK, Connie, III0.215073529RepublicanCenter98106FLsilent1940
1654PROUTY, Winston Lewis0.215031315RepublicanCenter8292VTgreatest1906
1655PREYER, Lunsford Richardson0.214776632DemocratCenter9196NCgreatest1919
1656WILSON, Robert Carlton (Bob)0.214384509RepublicanCenter8396CAgreatest1916
1657MILLER, William Edward0.214285714RepublicanCenter8288NYgreatest1914
1658GALLEGLY, Elton W.0.214285714RepublicanCenter100112CAsilent1944
1659McNULTY, Michael Robert0.214285714DemocratCenter101110NYboomer1947
1660BRYAN, Richard H0.213483146DemocratCenter101106NVsilent1937
1661BENTLEY, Helen Delich0.213367609RepublicanCenter99103MDgreatest1923
1662PICKETT, Thomas Augustus0.213114754DemocratRight7982TXgreatest1906
1663GLENN, Milton Willits0.212765957RepublicanCenter8588NJgreatest1903
1664OVERTON, John Holmes0.2125DemocratRight7280LAmissionary1875
1665DONNELL, Forrest C.0.212121212RepublicanCenter7981MOlost1884
1666DANFORTH, John Claggett0.211936663RepublicanCenter95103MOsilent1936
1667COOPER, John Sherman0.211726384RepublicanCenter8092KYgreatest1901
1668HATCH, Orrin Grant0.211421628RepublicanCenter95115UTsilent1934
1669DODD, Thomas Joseph0.211302211DemocratLeft8391CTgreatest1907
1670WALSH, William Francis0.211009174RepublicanCenter9395NYgreatest1912
1671CROSSER, Robert0.210810811DemocratLeft6383OHmissionary1874
1672BLILEY, Thomas Jerome, Jr.0.210445469RepublicanCenter97106VAsilent1932
1673SLAUGHTER, Daniel French, Jr.0.210126582RepublicanCenter99102VAgreatest1925
1674AIKEN, George David0.210055866RepublicanCenter7793VTlost1892
1675ULLMAN, Albert Conrad0.209876543DemocratCenter8596ORgreatest1914
1676FADDIS, Charles Isiah0.209302326DemocratCenter7377PAlost1890
1677HÉBERT, Felix Edward0.208677686DemocratRight7794LAgreatest1901
1678ROGERS, Edith Nourse0.208661417RepublicanCenter6986MAmissionary1881
1679SKEEN, Joseph Richard0.208588957RepublicanRight97107NMgreatest1927
1680HOUGHTON, Amory, Jr.0.207612457RepublicanCenter100108NYgreatest1926
1681SMITH, Margaret Chase0.207570208RepublicanCenter7692MElost1897
1682WRIGHT, James Claude, Jr.0.207249071DemocratRight84101TXgreatest1922
1683HYDE, Henry John0.207243461RepublicanCenter94109ILgreatest1924
1684BROOMFIELD, William S.0.207213579RepublicanCenter85102MIgreatest1922
1685PELLY, Thomas Minor0.206349206RepublicanCenter8392WAgreatest1902
1686WORTLEY, George Cornelius0.206349206RepublicanCenter97100NYgreatest1926
1687McCONNELL, Samuel Kerns, Jr.0.205882353RepublicanCenter7885PAgreatest1901
1688WILSON, Charles0.205549846DemocratCenter93104TXsilent1933
1689RHODES, John Jacob, III0.205387205RepublicanCenter100102AZsilent1943
1690CAREY, Hugh Leo0.205128205DemocratLeft8793NYgreatest1919
1691GEREN, Preston M. (Pete)0.204819277DemocratRight101104TXboomer1952
1692TAYLOR, Edward Thomas0.204545455DemocratRight6177COprogressive1858
1693SCHULTE, William Theodore0.204545455DemocratLeft7377INlost1890
1694MILLER, Edward Tylor0.204301075RepublicanCenter8085MDlost1895
1695MAYBANK, Burnet Rhett0.204225352DemocratRight7783SClost1899
1696ROBISON, Howard Winfield0.204188482RepublicanCenter8593NYgreatest1915
1697WOLF, Frank Rudolph0.20398773RepublicanCenter97113VAsilent1939
1698PRESTON, Prince Hulon, Jr.0.203883495DemocratRight8086GAgreatest1908
1699STAGGERS, Harley Orrin0.20375DemocratCenter8196WVgreatest1907
1700KEAN, Robert Winthrop0.202898551RepublicanCenter7685NJlost1893
1701MITCHELL, Donald Jerome0.202422145RepublicanCenter9397NYgreatest1923
1702FULMER, Hampton Pitts0.201923077DemocratRight6778SCmissionary1875
1703PEPPER, Claude Denson0.201706749DemocratCenter74101FLlost1900
1704HUDDLESTON, George Jr.0.201492537DemocratRight8488ALgreatest1920
1705BATEMAN, Herbert Harvell0.201492537RepublicanRight98106VAsilent1928
1706WALSH, James T.0.201438849RepublicanCenter101110NYboomer1947
1707STUBBS, Henry Elbert0.2DemocratCenter7375CAmissionary1881
1708DISNEY, Wesley Ernest0.2DemocratRight7278OKlost1883
1709CHANDLER, Walter (Clift)0.2DemocratCenter7476TNlost1887
1710SMITH, Martin Fernard0.2DemocratLeft7377WAlost1891
1711LEWIS, James Hamilton0.2DemocratLeft5576ILmissionary1863
1712BROWN, Fred Herbert0.2DemocratCenter7375NHmissionary1879
1713DUFFY, Francis Ryan0.2DemocratCenter7375WIlost1888
1714GAMBLE, Ralph Abernethy0.2RepublicanCenter7584NYlost1885
1715COLE, Albert McDonald0.2RepublicanCenter7982KSgreatest1901
1716MUMMA, Walter Mann0.2RepublicanCenter8287PAlost1890
1717KRUEGER, Robert Charles0.2DemocratCenter94103TXsilent1935
1718McCAIN, John Sidney, III0.1996337RepublicanCenter98115AZsilent1936
1719LLOYD, Sherman Parkinson0.198757764RepublicanCenter8892UTgreatest1914
1720MOLLOHAN, Robert Homer0.198461538DemocratRight8397WVgreatest1909
1721McGEHEE, Daniel Rayford0.198412698DemocratRight7479MSlost1883
1722DeWINE, Michael0.197979798RepublicanCenter98109OHboomer1947
1723GARN, Edwin Jacob (Jake)0.197940503RepublicanCenter94102UTsilent1932
1724TEAGUE, Charles McKevett0.197889182RepublicanCenter8493CAgreatest1909
1725OSMERS, Frank Charles, Jr.0.197802198RepublicanCenter7688NJgreatest1907
1726STANTON, John William0.197385621RepublicanCenter8997OHgreatest1924
1727McMILLAN, John Alexander, III (Alex)0.197080292RepublicanCenter99103NCsilent1932
1728ERLENBORN, John Neal0.196470588RepublicanCenter8998ILgreatest1927
1729MILLER, John Elvis0.196078431DemocratRight7277ARlost1888
1730KOCIALKOWSKI, Leo Paul0.195402299DemocratCenter7377ILmissionary1882
1731MILLIKEN, William H., Jr.0.195121951RepublicanCenter8688PAlost1897
1732ALLEN, Robert Gray0.194444444DemocratCenter7576PAgreatest1902
1733BIEMILLER, Andrew John0.194444444DemocratLeft7981WIgreatest1906
1734STEIGER, William Albert0.194384449RepublicanCenter9096WIsilent1938
1735DOUGHTON, Robert Lee0.194117647DemocratRight6282NCmissionary1863
1736THOMAS, Craig Lyle0.194029851RepublicanCenter101110WYsilent1933
1737PETERSON, Hugh0.193548387DemocratRight7479GAlost1898
1738McCARTHY, Richard Dean0.193277311DemocratLeft8991NYgreatest1927
1739GALLO, Dean Anderson0.193154034RepublicanCenter99103NJsilent1935
1740EAST, John Porter0.192771084RepublicanRight9799NCsilent1931
1741GORE, Albert Arnold0.192708333DemocratRight7691TNgreatest1907
1742GUBSER, Charles Samuel0.192612137RepublicanCenter8393CAgreatest1916
1743BAKER, Howard Henry, Jr.0.192356688RepublicanCenter9098TNgreatest1925
1744KELLY, Edward Austin0.192307692DemocratLeft7279ILlost1892
1745PFEIFER, Joseph Lawrence0.192307692DemocratLeft7481NYlost1892
1746FULTON, Richard Harmon0.192307692DemocratCenter8894TNgreatest1927
1747STEVENS, Theodore Fulton (Ted)0.191986644RepublicanCenter91110AKgreatest1923
1748DOUGLAS, Paul Howard0.191919192DemocratLeft8189ILlost1892
1749CORBETT, Robert James0.191891892RepublicanCenter7692PAgreatest1905
1750BOLTON, Frances Payne0.191549296RepublicanCenter7690OHlost1885
1751MORGAN, Robert Burren0.19133574DemocratRight9496NCgreatest1925
1752MAYNE, Wiley0.191111111RepublicanCenter9093IAgreatest1917
1753HAYAKAWA, Samuel Ichiye0.191011236RepublicanCenter9597CAgreatest1906
1754HOUSTON, John Mills0.19047619DemocratCenter7477KSlost1890
1755RABAUT, Louis Charles0.19047619DemocratLeft7487MIlost1886
1756McSWEENEY, John0.19047619DemocratCenter6881OHlost1890
1757HARRIS, Oren0.189964158DemocratRight7789ARgreatest1903
1758MacGREGOR, Clark0.189944134RepublicanCenter8791MNgreatest1922
1759KASTEN, Robert Walter, Jr.0.18967587RepublicanCenter94102WIsilent1942
1760DOMENICI, Pete Vichi0.189587426RepublicanCenter93110NMsilent1932
1761THOMAS, John William Elmer0.189320388DemocratRight6881OKmissionary1876
1762VOORHIS, Horace Jeremiah (Jerry)0.18852459DemocratLeft7579CAgreatest1901
1763HAYS, Wayne Levere0.187919463DemocratCenter8194OHgreatest1911
1764ELLIOTT, Alfred James0.1875DemocratCenter7580CAlost1895
1765WELCH, Philip James0.1875DemocratCenter8182MOlost1895
1766PFOST, Gracie Bowers0.1875DemocratRight8387IDgreatest1906
1767BOSCHWITZ, Rudolph Eli (Rudy)0.186646434RepublicanCenter96101MNsilent1930
1768SMATHERS, George Armistead0.186635945DemocratRight8090FLgreatest1913
1769FONG, Hiram Leong0.186440678RepublicanCenter8694HIgreatest1906
1770KLEBERG, Richard Mifflin, Sr.0.186046512DemocratRight7278TXlost1887
1771NICHOLS, John Conover0.185714286DemocratCenter7478OKlost1896
1772RUDMAN, Warren Bruce0.185483871RepublicanCenter97102NHsilent1930
1773PATTEN, Edward James0.185393258DemocratCenter8896NJgreatest1905
1774MITCHELL, Arthur Wergs0.185185185DemocratCenter7477ILlost1883
1775THOM, William Richard0.185185185DemocratLeft7379OHlost1885
1776DUNN, Matthew Anthony0.185185185DemocratLeft7376PAlost1886
1777YOUNG, Clarence Clifton0.185185185RepublicanCenter8384NVgreatest1922
1778MARTIN, David O'Brien0.185123967RepublicanCenter97102NYsilent1944
1779ROONEY, Frederick Bernard0.185046729DemocratCenter8895PAgreatest1925
1780HEALEY, Arthur Daniel0.184782609DemocratLeft7377MAlost1889
1781SOUTH, Charles Lacy0.184782609DemocratRight7477TXlost1892
1782BURKE, James Anthony0.18459069DemocratCenter8695MAgreatest1910
1783SIROVICH, William Irving0.184210526DemocratLeft7076NYmissionary1882
1784ASHLEY, Thomas William Ludlow0.183646113DemocratLeft8496OHgreatest1923
1785THOMAS, Albert0.183544304DemocratRight7589TXlost1898
1786JACKSON, Henry Martin (Scoop)0.183119819DemocratCenter7798WAgreatest1912
1787BUSH, Alvin Ray0.183098592RepublicanCenter8286PAlost1893
1788JEPSEN, Roger William0.183098592RepublicanCenter9698IAsilent1928
1789RAVENEL, Arthur, Jr.0.183050847RepublicanCenter100103SCgreatest1927
1790MATTINGLY, Mack Francis0.182926829RepublicanRight9799GAsilent1931
1791McLAUGHLIN, Charles Francis0.182795699DemocratCenter7477NElost1887
1792GILLMOR, Paul Eugene0.182481752RepublicanRight101110OHsilent1939
1793STRATTON, Samuel Studdiford0.182250396DemocratCenter86100NYgreatest1916
1794BOEHNE, John William, Jr.0.181818182DemocratCenter7277INlost1895
1795UMSTEAD, William Bradley0.181818182DemocratRight7380NClost1895
1796O'CONNELL, John Matthew0.181818182DemocratLeft7375RImissionary1872
1797KITCHENS, Wade Hampton0.181818182DemocratRight7576ARmissionary1878
1798TAYLOR, Dean Park0.181818182RepublicanCenter7886NYgreatest1902
1799MACK, Peter Francis, Jr.0.181818182DemocratCenter8187ILgreatest1916
1800WARNER, John William0.181818182RepublicanCenter96110VAgreatest1927
1801NICKLES, Donald Lee0.181818182RepublicanRight97108OKboomer1948
1802SIMPSON, Alan Kooi0.181568088RepublicanCenter96104WYsilent1931
1803BELLMON, Henry Louis0.181459566RepublicanCenter9196OKgreatest1921
1804MAHON, George Herman0.181405896DemocratRight7495TXlost1900
1805PITTMAN, Key0.180722892DemocratLeft6276NVmissionary1872
1806HAWKINS, Paula0.180645161RepublicanCenter9799FLgreatest1927
1807HOSMER, Craig0.179802956RepublicanCenter8393CAgreatest1915
1808TOLLEFSON, Thor Carl0.179775281RepublicanCenter8088WAgreatest1901
1809CLARK, Joseph Sill0.179558011DemocratLeft8590PAgreatest1901
1810PRICE, Charles Melvin0.179238237DemocratCenter79100ILgreatest1905
1811McKELLAR, Kenneth Douglas0.179039301DemocratCenter6282TNmissionary1869
1812ANDERSON, William Robert0.179012346DemocratCenter8992TNgreatest1921
1813QUIE, Albert Harold0.178875639RepublicanCenter8595MNgreatest1923
1814SHERIDAN, John Edward0.178571429DemocratLeft7679PAgreatest1902
1815McKENZIE, Charles Edgar0.178571429DemocratRight7879LAlost1896
1816PIERCE, Walter Marcus0.177777778DemocratCenter7377ORmissionary1861
1817PEARSON, Herron Carney0.177777778DemocratRight7477TNlost1890
1818LUGAR, Richard Green0.177458034RepublicanCenter95112INsilent1932
1819CANNON, Clarence Andrew0.177419355DemocratRight6888MOmissionary1879
1820KUPFERMAN, Theodore Roosevelt0.177419355RepublicanLeft8990NYgreatest1920
1821GRIFFIN, Robert Paul0.177285319RepublicanCenter8595MIgreatest1923
1822BUCKLEY, James Lane0.177257525OtherCenter9294NYgreatest1923
1823ROGERS, Will0.17721519DemocratCenter7377OKlost1898
1824TERRY, David Dickson0.177083333DemocratRight7377ARmissionary1881
1825KEARNEY, Bernard William (Pat)0.177083333RepublicanCenter7885NYlost1889
1826MAGEE, Clare0.176470588DemocratRight8182MOlost1899
1827DENTON, Jeremiah Andrew, Jr.0.17571885RepublicanRight9799ALgreatest1924
1828ALLEN, Asa Leonard0.175324675DemocratRight7582LAlost1891
1829KNOWLAND, William Fife0.174863388RepublicanCenter7985CAgreatest1908
1830HOGAN, Lawrence Joseph0.174863388RepublicanCenter9193MDsilent1928
1831EDMISTON, Andrew0.174418605DemocratCenter7377WVlost1892
1832TYDINGS, Millard Evelyn0.174358974DemocratLeft6881MDlost1890
1833McCRERY, James O., III0.174157303RepublicanRight100110LAboomer1949
1834MORRISON, Sidney Wallace0.174045802RepublicanCenter97102WAsilent1933
1835COX, Edward Eugene0.173913043DemocratRight6982GAmissionary1880
1836KELLER, Kent Ellsworth0.173913043DemocratLeft7276ILmissionary1867
1837SCOTT, Hugh Doggett, Jr.0.173228346RepublicanCenter7794PAlost1900
1838ROBB, Charles Spittal0.173184358DemocratLeft101106VAsilent1939
1839WATTS, John Clarence0.172881356DemocratRight8292KYgreatest1902
1840CRAVENS, William Fadjo0.172413793DemocratRight7680ARlost1899
1841ROS-LEHTINEN, Ileana0.172413793RepublicanCenter101115FLboomer1952
1842LYLE, John Emmett, Jr.0.171875DemocratRight7983TXgreatest1910
1843JOHNSON, Harold Terry0.171690695DemocratRight8696CAgreatest1907
1844NELSEN, Ancher0.171662125RepublicanCenter8693MNgreatest1904
1845SULLIVAN, Leonor Kretzer0.171610169DemocratCenter8394MOgreatest1902
1846HOAGLAND, Peter J.0.171428571DemocratLeft101103NEsilent1941
1847HILL, Joseph Lister0.171296296DemocratRight6890ALlost1894
1848PACE, Stephen0.171232877DemocratRight7581GAlost1891
1849BEAM, Harry Peter0.171052632DemocratLeft7277ILlost1892
1850MILLS, Newt Virgus0.171052632DemocratCenter7577LAlost1899
1851HECHT, Jacob Chic0.171014493RepublicanCenter98100NVsilent1928
1852MARTIN, John Andrew0.170731707DemocratLeft6176COmissionary1868
1853JOHNSON, Jed Joseph0.17037037DemocratRight7079OKlost1888
1854SMITH, Lamar Seeligson0.169550173RepublicanRight100115TXboomer1947
1855BOLLING, Richard Walker0.168707483DemocratLeft8197MOgreatest1916
1856HOLLAND, Spessard Lindsey0.168333333DemocratRight8091FLlost1892
1857BROTZMAN, Donald Glenn0.16796875RepublicanCenter8893COgreatest1922
1858NELSON, William Lester0.166666667DemocratRight6677MOmissionary1875
1859SCRUGHAM, James Graves0.166666667DemocratCenter7379NVmissionary1880
1860McADOO, William Gibbs0.166666667DemocratCenter7375CAmissionary1863
1861COPELAND, Royal Samuel0.166666667DemocratCenter6875NYmissionary1868
1862LATHAM, Henry Jepson0.166666667RepublicanCenter7985NYgreatest1908
1863MARSHALL, Fred0.166666667DemocratCenter8187MNgreatest1906
1864RADWAN, Edmund Patrick0.166666667RepublicanCenter8285NYgreatest1911
1865LOWERY, William David0.165625RepublicanCenter97102CAboomer1947
1866CHELF, Frank Leslie0.165354331DemocratRight7989KYgreatest1907
1867AVERY, William Henry0.165289256RepublicanCenter8488KSgreatest1911
1868MURKOWSKI, Frank Hughes0.164763458RepublicanCenter97107AKsilent1933
1869LARRABEE, William Henry0.164705882DemocratCenter7277INmissionary1870
1870BASS, Ross0.164634146DemocratRight8489TNgreatest1918
1871SCOTT, William Kerr0.164383562DemocratRight8385NClost1896
1872D'AMATO, Alfonse Marcello0.164274322RepublicanCenter97105NYsilent1937
1873SOMERS, Andrew Lawrence0.163934426DemocratLeft6981NYlost1895
1874GREEN, Edith Starrett0.163841808DemocratCenter8493ORgreatest1910
1875DOUGLAS, Helen Gahagan0.163265306DemocratLeft7981CAlost1900
1876NEUBERGER, Maurine Brown0.162790698DemocratLeft8789ORgreatest1907
1877HANNA, Richard Thomas0.1625DemocratCenter8893CAgreatest1914
1878GARRETT, Clyde Leonard0.162162162DemocratRight7576TXlost1885
1879AUCHINCLOSS, James Coats0.162162162RepublicanCenter7888NJlost1885
1880GORTON, Thomas Slade, III (Slade)0.161793372RepublicanCenter97106WAsilent1928
1881JOHNSON, George William0.161290323DemocratCenter6877WVmissionary1869
1882LA FOLLETTE, Charles Marion0.161290323RepublicanLeft7879INlost1898
1883YOUNG, John Andrew0.161290323DemocratRight8595TXgreatest1916
1884LOSER, Joseph Carlton0.16DemocratRight8587TNlost1892
1885CUMMINGS, Fred Nelson0.159090909DemocratRight7376COmissionary1864
1886GRIFFITH, John Keller0.159090909DemocratRight7576LAmissionary1882
1887CARRIGG, Joseph Leonard0.157894737RepublicanCenter8285PAgreatest1901
1888STAUFFER, Simon Walter0.157894737RepublicanCenter8385PAlost1888
1889PURCELL, Graham Boynton, Jr.0.157635468DemocratRight8792TXgreatest1919
1890O'HARA, James Grant0.157276995DemocratCenter8694MIgreatest1925
1891ROGERS, Dwight Laing0.155844156DemocratRight7983FLlost1886
1892HAVENNER, Franck Roberts0.155339806DemocratLeft7582CAmissionary1882
1893BROWN, Paul0.15530303DemocratRight7386GAmissionary1880
1894TAFT, Robert, Jr.0.154589372RepublicanCenter8894OHgreatest1917
1895BLATNIK, John Anton0.15443038DemocratCenter8093MNgreatest1911
1896SCHWENGEL, Frederick Delbert0.154411765RepublicanCenter8492IAgreatest1906
1897CROWE, Eugene Burgess0.153846154DemocratCenter7276INmissionary1878
1898SELDEN, Armistead Inge, Jr.0.153846154DemocratRight8390ALgreatest1921
1899HALPERN, Seymour0.153846154RepublicanLeft8692NYgreatest1913
1900MOLINARI, Susan0.153846154RepublicanCenter101105NYboomer1958
1901ZABLOCKI, Clement John0.153339605DemocratCenter8198WIgreatest1912
1902DOUGHERTY, Charles Francis0.152838428RepublicanLeft9697PAsilent1937
1903TARVER, Malcolm Connor0.152671756DemocratRight7079GAlost1885
1904CHAPMAN, Virgil Munday0.152317881DemocratRight6982KYlost1895
1905MORTON, Thruston Ballard0.151260504RepublicanCenter8090KYgreatest1907
1906SCHWELLENBACH, Lewis Baxter0.151162791DemocratCenter7476WAlost1894
1907MURPHY, John Michael0.151006711DemocratCenter8896NYgreatest1926
1908BUSH, Prescott Sheldon0.150234742RepublicanCenter8387CTlost1895
1909CALDWELL, Millard Fillmore0.15DemocratRight7376FLlost1897
1910MURDOCK, Orrice Abram, Jr. (Abe)0.15DemocratLeft7379UTlost1893
1911SCHIFF, Steven Harvey0.15RepublicanCenter101105NMboomer1947
1912McCONNELL, Addison Mitchell (Mitch)0.149321267RepublicanRight99116KYsilent1942
1913DOXEY, Wall0.148148148DemocratRight7177MSlost1892
1914LONERGAN, Augustine0.148148148DemocratLeft6375CTmissionary1874
1915WEST, Milton Horace0.147540984DemocratRight7380TXlost1888
1916MORSE, Frank Bradford0.147058824RepublicanCenter8792MAgreatest1921
1917BOND, Christopher Samuel (Kit)0.146179402RepublicanCenter100111MOsilent1939
1918PARSONS, Claude VanCleve0.145833333DemocratCenter7176ILlost1895
1919MANSFIELD, Joseph Jefferson0.145631068DemocratRight6580TXmissionary1861
1920AYRES, William Hanes0.145522388RepublicanCenter8291OHgreatest1916
1921JONES, John Marvin0.145454545DemocratRight6576TXmissionary1882
1922MAY, Andrew Jackson0.145038168DemocratRight7279KYmissionary1875
1923BARRETT, William Aloysius0.143478261DemocratCenter7994PAlost1896
1924ROBINSON, Joseph Taylor0.142857143DemocratLeft5875ARmissionary1872
1925STEARNS, Foster Waterman0.142857143RepublicanCenter7678NHmissionary1881
1926ENGLE, Clair0.142857143DemocratCenter7888CAgreatest1911
1927ROHRBOUGH, Edward Gay0.142857143RepublicanCenter7880WVmissionary1874
1928JACKSON, Donald Lester0.142857143RepublicanCenter8086CAgreatest1910
1929GILBERT, Jacob H.0.142857143DemocratLeft8691NYgreatest1920
1930LONG, Oren Ethelbirt0.142857143DemocratLeft8687HIlost1889
1931OLSEN, Arnold0.142156863DemocratCenter8791MTgreatest1916
1932CHANDLER, Albert Benjamin (Happy)0.141732283DemocratCenter7679KYlost1898
1933BRECKINRIDGE, John Bayne0.141566265DemocratCenter9395KYgreatest1913
1934DANIELS, Dominick Vincent0.140997831DemocratCenter8694NJgreatest1908
1935WILSON, Pete0.140589569RepublicanCenter98101CAsilent1933
1936BURNS, Conrad0.140449438RepublicanRight101109MTsilent1935
1937OSTERTAG, Harold Charles0.140243902RepublicanCenter8288NYlost1896
1938CLARK, Jerome Bayard0.140186916DemocratRight7180NCmissionary1882
1939WILLIAMS, Clyde0.139784946DemocratRight7077MOmissionary1873
1940FULTON, James Grove0.139784946RepublicanCenter7992PAgreatest1903
1941DE ROUEN, René Louis0.139534884DemocratCenter7076LAmissionary1874
1942MATHIAS, Robert Bruce (Bob)0.139175258RepublicanCenter9093CAsilent1930
1943IMHOFF, Lawrence E.0.138461538DemocratLeft7377OHlost1895
1944DONOHUE, Harold Daniel0.138321995DemocratLeft8093MAgreatest1901
1945VINCENT, Beverly Mills0.138297872DemocratRight7578KYlost1890
1946KEATING, Kenneth Barnard0.138181818RepublicanCenter8088NYlost1900
1947HAINES, Harry Luther0.137931034DemocratCenter7277PAmissionary1880
1948PIRNIE, Alexander0.137681159RepublicanCenter8692NYgreatest1903
1949LEAVY, Charles Henry0.1375DemocratLeft7577WAlost1884
1950GOSSETT, Ed Lee0.136690647DemocratRight7682TXgreatest1902
1951KRAMER, Charles0.136363636DemocratCenter7377CAmissionary1879
1952CLEMENTS, Earle C.0.136363636DemocratCenter7984KYlost1896
1953BILBO, Theodore Gilmore0.136054422DemocratRight7480MSmissionary1877
1954FOLGER, John Hamlin0.135802469DemocratRight7780NCmissionary1880
1955CARAWAY, Hattie Wyatt0.135714286DemocratRight7278ARmissionary1878
1956O'NEAL, Emmet0.135338346DemocratCenter7479KYlost1887
1957WARREN, Lindsay Carter0.134615385DemocratRight6976NClost1889
1958HILLINGS, Patrick Jerome0.134615385RepublicanCenter8285CAgreatest1923
1959KUCHEL, Thomas Henry0.133928571RepublicanCenter8390CAgreatest1910
1960FLOOD, Daniel John0.133608815DemocratCenter7996PAgreatest1903
1961GAMBRILL, Stephen Warfield0.133333333DemocratLeft6875MDmissionary1873
1962WOODRUM, Clifton Alexander0.133333333DemocratRight6879VAlost1887
1963WORLEY, Francis Eugene0.13253012DemocratRight7781TXgreatest1908
1964BUCK, Frank Henry0.131578947DemocratCenter7377CAlost1887
1965RUSSELL, Sam Morris0.131578947DemocratRight7779TXlost1889
1966LANHAM, Fritz Garland0.131386861DemocratRight6679TXmissionary1880
1967BANKHEAD, John Hollis II0.131034483DemocratCenter7279ALmissionary1872
1968McFARLAND, Ernest William0.131034483DemocratRight7782AZlost1894
1969LUCAS, Scott Wike0.130434783DemocratLeft7481ILlost1892
1970SANDERS, Jared Young, Jr.0.130434783DemocratRight7377LAlost1892
1971ROMJUE, Milton Andrew0.130434783DemocratRight6577MOmissionary1874
1972GAVAGAN, Joseph Andrew0.130434783DemocratLeft7178NYlost1892
1973McCARTHY, Eugene Joseph0.130120482DemocratCenter8191MNgreatest1916
1974CAMP, Albert Sidney0.129496403DemocratRight7683GAlost1892
1975MADDEN, Ray John0.129370629DemocratCenter7894INlost1892
1976HANSEN, Julia Butler0.129151292DemocratCenter8793WAgreatest1907
1977STARNES, Joe0.129032258DemocratRight7478ALlost1895
1978ZIMMERMAN, Orville0.128787879DemocratRight7480MOmissionary1880
1979FORD, Gerald Rudolph, Jr.0.128787879RepublicanCenter8193MIgreatest1913
1980FARBSTEIN, Leonard0.128755365DemocratLeft8591NYgreatest1902
1981BOYKIN, Frank William0.128571429DemocratRight7487ALlost1885
1982ARNOLD, Laurence Fletcher0.128571429DemocratCenter7577ILlost1891
1983DREWRY, Patrick Henry0.128DemocratRight6680VAmissionary1875
1984BREWSTER, Daniel Baugh0.127659574DemocratLeft8690MDgreatest1923
1985BEALL, John Glenn, Jr.0.127604167RepublicanCenter9194MDgreatest1927
1986STEAGALL, Henry Bascom0.126582278DemocratRight6478ALmissionary1873
1987PATTON, Nat0.126126126DemocratRight7478TXmissionary1881
1988BURCH, Thomas Granville0.126126126DemocratRight7279VAmissionary1869
1989HART, Edward Joseph0.125748503DemocratLeft7483NJlost1893
1990MATTHEWS, Donald Ray (Billy)0.12565445DemocratRight8389FLgreatest1907
1991RAMSAY, Robert Lincoln0.125DemocratLeft7382WVmissionary1877
1992McGUIRE, John Andrew0.125DemocratLeft8182CTgreatest1906
1993SMITH, Willis0.125DemocratRight8183NClost1887
1994CELLER, Emanuel0.124105012DemocratLeft6892NYlost1888
1995KEITH, Hastings0.124087591RepublicanCenter8692MAgreatest1915
1996NEUBERGER, Richard Lewis0.123966942DemocratLeft8486ORgreatest1912
1997HARE, Butler Black0.123809524DemocratRight6979SCmissionary1875
1998IKARD, Frank Neville0.123809524DemocratRight8287TXgreatest1913
1999PATTERSON, James Thomas0.123595506RepublicanCenter8085CTgreatest1908
2000O'NEILL, Thomas Philip, Jr. (Tip)0.123552124DemocratCenter8399MAgreatest1912
2001CLAYPOOL, Harold Kile0.12345679DemocratCenter7577OHlost1886
2002WARE, John Haines, III0.123287671RepublicanCenter9193PAgreatest1908
2003KENNEDY, Robert Francis0.123076923DemocratLeft8990NYgreatest1925
2004GEORGE, Walter Franklin0.122807018DemocratCenter6784GAmissionary1878
2005COOLEY, Harold Dunbar0.122754491DemocratRight7389NClost1897
2006STEWART, Arthur Thomas0.122699387DemocratRight7680TNlost1892
2007WALLGREN, Monrad Charles0.121495327DemocratLeft7379WAlost1891
2008RIEHLMAN, Roy Walter0.121387283RepublicanCenter8088NYlost1899
2009DWYER, Florence Price0.121311475RepublicanCenter8592NJgreatest1902
2010CASEY, Joseph Edward0.121212121DemocratLeft7477MAlost1898
2011REDDEN, Monroe Minor0.121212121DemocratRight8082NCgreatest1901
2012SMITH, Henry P., III0.121212121RepublicanCenter8993NYgreatest1911
2013SALTONSTALL, Leverett0.120930233RepublicanCenter7989MAlost1892
2014THOMASON, Robert Ewing0.120567376DemocratCenter7280TXmissionary1879
2015FITZGERALD, William Joseph0.12DemocratLeft7577CTlost1887
2016TRAYNOR, Philip Andrew0.12DemocratLeft7779DEmissionary1874
2017NEELY, Matthew Mansfield0.119834711DemocratCenter6385WVmissionary1874
2018HEFFERNAN, James Joseph0.119565217DemocratLeft7782NYlost1888
2019BATES, William Henry0.119402985RepublicanCenter8191MAgreatest1917
2020PUCINSKI, Roman Conrad0.119402985DemocratCenter8692ILgreatest1919
2021BAILEY, Josiah William0.119205298DemocratLeft7279NCmissionary1873
2022SULLIVAN, Christopher Daniel0.119047619DemocratLeft6576NYmissionary1870
2023WEAVER, Zebulon0.119047619DemocratRight6579NCmissionary1872
2024JOHNSON, Lyndon Baines0.118811881DemocratRight7586TXgreatest1908
2025MEAD, James Michael0.11875DemocratLeft6679NYlost1885
2026GRIFFITHS, Martha Wright0.11849711DemocratCenter8493MIgreatest1912
2027GLASS, Carter0.118110236DemocratLeft5779VAprogressive1858
2028ALMOND, James Lindsay, Jr.0.117647059DemocratRight7980VAlost1898
2029GREEN, Robert Alexis (Lex)0.116883117DemocratRight6978FLlost1892
2030SPARKMAN, John Jackson0.116858238DemocratRight7595ALlost1899
2031HARRISON, Byron Patton (Pat)0.116504854DemocratLeft6277MSmissionary1881
2032OUTLAND, George Elmer0.11627907DemocratLeft7879CAgreatest1906
2033MORRISON, James Hobson0.116161616DemocratRight7889LAgreatest1908
2034COCHRAN, John Joseph0.116071429DemocratLeft6979MOmissionary1880
2035WEISS, Samuel Arthur0.115384615DemocratLeft7779PAgreatest1902
2036BOWLER, James Bernard0.115384615DemocratLeft8385ILmissionary1875
2037LESINSKI, John0.115107914DemocratLeft7381MIlost1885
2038SISK, Bernice Frederic0.114922813DemocratRight8495CAgreatest1910
2039WENE, Elmer H.0.114754098DemocratLeft7578NJlost1892
2040MERRITT, Matthew Joseph0.114583333DemocratLeft7478NYlost1895
2041JOHNSON, Luther Alexander0.114285714DemocratRight6879TXmissionary1875
2042SUMNERS, Hatton William0.114285714DemocratRight6379TXmissionary1875
2043COHELAN, Jeffery0.114155251DemocratLeft8691CAgreatest1914
2044FLANDERS, Ralph Edward0.113924051RepublicanCenter8085VTmissionary1880
2045WHITTINGTON, William Madison0.113772455DemocratRight6981MSmissionary1878
2046McKEOUGH, Raymond Stephen0.113636364DemocratLeft7477ILlost1888
2047LEA, Clarence Frederick0.113475177DemocratCenter6580CAmissionary1874
2048KLEIN, Arthur George0.113402062DemocratLeft7784NYgreatest1904
2049THOMAS, Elbert Duncan0.113207547DemocratCenter7381UTlost1883
2050SUNDSTROM, Frank Leander0.113207547RepublicanCenter7880NJgreatest1901
2051LEE, Joshua Bryan0.113043478DemocratRight7477OKlost1892
2052BEITER, Alfred Florian0.112903226DemocratLeft7377NYlost1894
2053LONG, Edward Vaughn0.111570248DemocratCenter8790MOgreatest1908
2054MOUTON, Robert Louis0.111111111DemocratRight7576LAlost1892
2055BUNKER, Berkeley Lloyd0.111111111DemocratCenter7679NVgreatest1906
2056COUDERT, Frederic René, Jr.0.111111111RepublicanCenter8085NYlost1898
2057PORTER, Charles Orlando0.111111111DemocratLeft8586ORgreatest1919
2058CANFIELD, Gordon0.110497238RepublicanLeft7786NJlost1898
2059DUNCAN, Richard Meloan0.10989011DemocratRight7377MOlost1889
2060SMITH, Joseph Luther0.109756098DemocratCenter7178WVmissionary1880
2061MANASCO, Carter0.109756098DemocratRight7780ALgreatest1902
2062SPRINGER, William Lee0.109756098RepublicanCenter8292ILgreatest1909
2063ROONEY, John James0.109489051DemocratCenter7893NYgreatest1903
2064DIXON, Henry Aldous0.109375RepublicanCenter8486UTlost1890
2065BRADLEY, Michael Joseph0.108910891DemocratLeft7579PAlost1897
2066BLAND, Schuyler Otis0.108843537DemocratRight6581VAmissionary1872
2067KENNEDY, Ambrose Jerome0.108695652DemocratLeft7276MDlost1893
2068SCHUETZ, Leonard William0.108433735DemocratLeft7278ILlost1887
2069SABATH, Adolph Joachim0.107692308DemocratLeft6082ILmissionary1866
2070PHILBIN, Philip Joseph0.10755814DemocratLeft7891MAlost1898
2071CLARK, Frank Monroe0.107438017DemocratCenter8493PAgreatest1915
2072BYRNES, James Francis0.107142857DemocratLeft6277SCmissionary1882
2073LUCE, Clare Boothe0.107142857RepublicanCenter7879CTgreatest1903
2074JONES, Robert Emmett, Jr.0.106425703DemocratRight8094ALgreatest1912
2075HARDY, Porter, Jr.0.106060606DemocratRight8090VAgreatest1903
2076HENDRICKS, Joseph Edward0.105691057DemocratRight7580FLgreatest1903
2077KELLEY, Augustine Bernard0.105633803DemocratLeft7785PAlost1883
2078CREAL, Edward Wester0.105263158DemocratRight7478KYlost1883
2079GRANGER, Walter Keil0.105263158DemocratCenter7782UTlost1888
2080HOEY, Clyde Roark0.105263158DemocratRight6683NCmissionary1877
2081ALLEN, John Joseph, Jr.0.105263158RepublicanCenter8085CAlost1899
2082McGRATH, Christopher Columbus0.105263158DemocratLeft8182NYgreatest1902
2083HYDE, DeWitt Stephen0.105263158RepublicanCenter8385MDgreatest1909
2084McFALL, John Joseph0.105022831DemocratCenter8595CAgreatest1918
2085GRANAHAN, William Thomas0.104477612DemocratLeft7984PAlost1895
2086WIDNALL, William Beck0.104408353RepublicanCenter8193NJgreatest1906
2087RICHARDS, James Prioleau0.104395604DemocratRight7384SClost1894
2088PATMAN, John William Wright0.104347826DemocratRight7194TXlost1893
2089LEWIS, Lawrence0.104166667DemocratCenter7378COmissionary1879
2090MALONEY, Paul Herbert0.103896104DemocratRight7279LAmissionary1876
2091ROBINSON, James William0.103773585DemocratCenter7379UTmissionary1878
2092BALDWIN, John Finley, Jr.0.103658537RepublicanCenter8489CAgreatest1915
2093FLANNERY, John Harold0.103448276DemocratLeft7577PAlost1898
2094MURDOCK, John Robert0.103225806DemocratCenter7582AZlost1885
2095DURHAM, Carl Thomas0.103092784DemocratRight7686NClost1892
2096McGEE, Gale William0.103030303DemocratCenter8694WYgreatest1915
2097PURTELL, William Arthur0.102803738RepublicanCenter8385CTlost1897
2098DARDEN, Colgate Whitehead, Jr.0.102564103DemocratRight7377VAlost1897
2099ANDREWS, Charles Oscar0.102362205DemocratRight7479FLmissionary1877
2100CULLEN, Thomas Henry0.102040816DemocratLeft6678NYmissionary1868
2101FORD, Thomas Francis0.101851852DemocratLeft7378CAmissionary1873
2102O'TOOLE, Donald Lawrence0.101449275DemocratLeft7582NYgreatest1902
2103MONRONEY, Almer Stillwell Mike0.100719424DemocratCenter7690OKgreatest1902
2104KEFAUVER, Carey Estes0.100543478DemocratCenter7688TNgreatest1903
2105CURLEY, Edward Walter0.1DemocratLeft7476NYmissionary1873
2106MOORE, Arthur Harry0.1DemocratLeft7475NJmissionary1877
2107BACHMAN, Nathan Lynn0.1DemocratCenter7375TNmissionary1878
2108SCANLON, Thomas Edward0.1DemocratLeft7778PAlost1896
2109MALLARY, Richard Walker0.1RepublicanCenter9293VTsilent1929
2110BLOOM, Sol0.097902098DemocratLeft6881NYmissionary1870
2111MONAGAN, John Stephen0.097902098DemocratLeft8692CTgreatest1911
2112CONNALLY, Thomas Terry (Tom)0.097777778DemocratRight6582TXmissionary1877
2113DUFF, James Henderson0.097560976RepublicanCenter8284PAlost1883
2114BRYSON, Joseph Raleigh0.097402597DemocratRight7683SClost1893
2115DOMENGEAUX, James0.097222222DemocratRight7780LAgreatest1907
2116SIBAL, Abner Woodruff0.097222222RepublicanCenter8788CTgreatest1921
2117LOGAN, Marvel Mills0.096774194DemocratCenter7276KYmissionary1874
2118MORANO, Albert Paul0.096774194RepublicanCenter8285CTgreatest1908
2119KENNEDY, John Fitzgerald0.096045198DemocratLeft8086MAgreatest1917
2120DINGELL, John David0.095541401DemocratLeft7384MIlost1894
2121HOBBS, Samuel Francis0.095238095DemocratRight7481ALlost1887
2122HATCH, Carl Atwood0.095238095DemocratCenter7380NMlost1889
2123STEWART, Paul0.095238095DemocratRight7879OKlost1892
2124O'NEILL, Harry Patrick0.095238095DemocratLeft8182PAlost1889
2125BULWINKLE, Alfred Lee0.094890511DemocratRight6781NClost1883
2126DORN, Francis Edwin0.094594595RepublicanCenter8386NYgreatest1911
2127BALDWIN, Joseph Clark0.094339623RepublicanLeft7779NYlost1897
2128BELL, Charles Jasper0.094017094DemocratRight7480MOlost1885
2129CHATHAM, Richard Thurmond0.09375DemocratRight8184NClost1896
2130DONOVAN, James George0.09375DemocratLeft8284NYlost1898
2131IZAC, Edouard Victor Michel0.093457944DemocratLeft7579CAlost1891
2132CHRISTOPHER, George Henry0.093023256DemocratCenter8186MOlost1888
2133FEIGHAN, Michael Aloysius0.092957746DemocratCenter7891OHgreatest1905
2134WAGNER, Robert Ferdinand0.092896175DemocratLeft7081NYmissionary1877
2135KERR, John Hosea0.092857143DemocratRight6882NCmissionary1873
2136CARROLL, John Albert0.091954023DemocratLeft8087COgreatest1901
2137SADLAK, Antoni Nicholas0.091954023RepublicanCenter8085CTgreatest1908
2138THOMPSON, Clark Wallace0.09178744DemocratRight7389TXlost1896
2139PAYNE, Frederick George0.091743119RepublicanCenter8385MEgreatest1904
2140HARTER, Dow Watters0.090909091DemocratLeft7377OHlost1885
2141HERTER, Christian Archibald0.090909091RepublicanCenter7882MAlost1895
2142NIXON, Richard Milhous0.090909091RepublicanCenter8082CAgreatest1913
2143BALDWIN, Raymond Earl0.090909091RepublicanCenter8081CTlost1893
2144BREEN, Edward Grimes0.090909091DemocratLeft8182OHgreatest1908
2145LANTAFF, William Courtland0.090909091DemocratCenter8283FLgreatest1913
2146PETERSON, James Hardin0.090322581DemocratRight7381FLlost1894
2147BREEDING, James Floyd0.08988764DemocratCenter8587KSgreatest1901
2148GUFFEY, Joseph F.0.089285714DemocratLeft7479PAmissionary1870
2149JARMAN, Peterson Bryant (Pete)0.089285714DemocratRight7580ALlost1892
2150SENNER, George Frederick, Jr.0.089285714DemocratCenter8889AZgreatest1921
2151HERRING, Clyde LaVerne0.089108911DemocratCenter7577IAmissionary1879
2152HARLESS, Richard Fielding0.088888889DemocratCenter7880AZgreatest1905
2153RADCLIFFE, George Lovic Pierce0.088235294DemocratLeft7479MDmissionary1877
2154HEDRICK, Erland Harold0.087719298DemocratLeft7982WVlost1894
2155CHUDOFF, Earl0.087719298DemocratLeft8185PAgreatest1907
2156WELTNER, Charles Longstreet0.0875DemocratCenter8889GAgreatest1927
2157FERGUSON, Phillip Colgan0.086956522DemocratCenter7476OKgreatest1903
2158DIETERICH, William Henry0.086956522DemocratLeft7275ILmissionary1876
2159FLAHERTY, Thomas Aloysius0.086956522DemocratLeft7577MAlost1898
2160FURCOLO, John Foster0.086956522DemocratLeft8182MAgreatest1911
2161CLEMENTE, Louis Gary0.086956522DemocratLeft8182NYgreatest1908
2162DEVEREUX, James Patrick Sinnott0.086956522RepublicanCenter8285MDgreatest1903
2163GREGORY, Noble Jones0.086538462DemocratRight7585KYlost1897
2164ROBERTS, Kenneth Allison0.0859375DemocratRight8288ALgreatest1912
2165HUGHES, James Hurd0.085714286DemocratLeft7577DEmissionary1867
2166MURPHY, John William0.085714286DemocratCenter7879PAgreatest1902
2167O'BRIEN, Thomas Joseph0.085201794DemocratLeft7388ILmissionary1878
2168COOPER, Jere0.084821429DemocratRight7185TNlost1893
2169SMITH, Howard Alexander0.084210526RepublicanCenter7885NJmissionary1880
2170TRUMAN, Harry S.0.083969466DemocratCenter7479MOlost1884
2171DICKSTEIN, Samuel0.083333333DemocratLeft6879NYlost1885
2172BULKLEY, Robert Johns0.083333333DemocratLeft6275OHmissionary1880
2173SMATHERS, William Howell0.083333333DemocratLeft7577NJlost1891
2174WASIELEWSKI, Thaddeus Francis Boleslaw0.083333333DemocratLeft7779WIgreatest1904
2175TUNNELL, James Miller0.083333333DemocratLeft7779DEmissionary1879
2176IVES, Irving McNeil0.083333333RepublicanCenter8085NYlost1896
2177FRAZIER, James Beriah, Jr.0.083333333DemocratRight8187TNlost1890
2178ANDERSON, LeRoy Hagen0.083333333DemocratLeft8586MTgreatest1906
2179RAMSPECK, Robert C. Word0.082644628DemocratCenter7179GAlost1890
2180SHEPPARD, Harry Richard0.082397004DemocratCenter7588CAlost1885
2181BASS, Perkins0.082352941RepublicanCenter8487NHgreatest1912
2182SCHWERT, Pius Louis0.081081081DemocratLeft7677NYlost1892
2183DELANEY, John Joseph0.080882353DemocratLeft6580NYmissionary1878
2184EDMONDSON, Edmond Augustus0.080645161DemocratRight8392OKgreatest1919
2185GARY, Julian Vaughan0.08056872DemocratRight7988VAlost1892
2186RABIN, Benjamin J.0.08DemocratLeft7980NYlost1896
2187LIND, James Francis0.08DemocratCenter8182PAlost1900
2188BYRNE, James Aloysius0.079881657DemocratCenter8392PAgreatest1906
2189LANE, Thomas Joseph0.079787234DemocratLeft7787MAlost1898
2190COURTNEY, William Wirt0.078947368DemocratRight7680TNlost1889
2191BURNSIDE, Maurice Gwinn0.078947368DemocratCenter8184WVgreatest1902
2192SNYDER, John Buell0.07826087DemocratCenter7379PAmissionary1877
2193SCHWARTZ, Henry Herman (Harry)0.07826087DemocratCenter7577WYmissionary1869
2194MINTON, Sherman0.076923077DemocratLeft7476INlost1890
2195HOLMES, Otis Halbert0.076923077RepublicanCenter7885WAgreatest1902
2196BATTLE, Laurie Calvin0.076923077DemocratRight8083ALgreatest1912
2197CAHILL, William Thomas0.076502732RepublicanCenter8691NJgreatest1912
2198FLANNAGAN, John William, Jr.0.076388889DemocratRight7280VAlost1885
2199JUDD, Walter Henry0.076142132RepublicanCenter7887MNlost1898
2200WARD, David Jenkins0.075949367DemocratCenter7678MDmissionary1871
2201CAMERON, Ronald Brooks0.075949367DemocratLeft8889CAgreatest1927
2202WAINWRIGHT, Stuyvesant, II0.075757576RepublicanCenter8386NYgreatest1921
2203CRETELLA, Albert William0.075471698RepublicanCenter8385CTlost1897
2204ROBSION, John Marshall, Jr.0.075471698RepublicanCenter8385KYgreatest1904
2205MITCHELL, Hugh Burnton0.075DemocratLeft7982WAgreatest1907
2206WICKERSHAM, Victor Eugene0.07486631DemocratRight7788OKgreatest1906
2207THYE, Edward John0.074712644RepublicanCenter8085MNlost1896
2208HOLIFIELD, Chester Earl0.074592075DemocratCenter7893CAgreatest1903
2209HESELTON, John Walter0.074380165RepublicanCenter7985MAlost1900
2210RAYBURN, Samuel Taliaferro0.074074074DemocratRight6387TXmissionary1882
2211LEHMAN, Herbert Henry0.073684211DemocratLeft8184NYmissionary1878
2212BARKLEY, Alben William0.073394495DemocratCenter6384KYmissionary1877
2213HENNINGS, Thomas Carey, Jr.0.072727273DemocratLeft7486MOgreatest1903
2214JOHNSON, Justin Leroy0.072164948RepublicanCenter7884CAlost1888
2215FITZPATRICK, James Martin0.072072072DemocratLeft7078NYmissionary1869
2216HAYDEN, Carl Trumbull0.07177814DemocratCenter6290AZmissionary1877
2217SATTERFIELD, Dave Edward, Jr.0.071428571DemocratRight7579VAlost1894
2218BURGIN, William Olin0.071428571DemocratRight7679NCmissionary1877
2219SLAUGHTER, Roger Caldwell0.071428571DemocratRight7879MOgreatest1905
2220UNDERWOOD, Thomas Rust0.071428571DemocratRight8182KYlost1898
2221IRVING, Theodore Leonard0.071428571DemocratLeft8182MOlost1898
2222HELLER, Louis Benjamin0.071428571DemocratLeft8183NYgreatest1905
2223QUINN, Thomas Vincent0.071428571DemocratLeft8182NYgreatest1903
2224BUCHANAN, Vera Daerr0.071428571DemocratLeft8284PAgreatest1902
2225DENTON, Winfield Kirkpatrick0.070351759DemocratCenter8189INlost1896
2226HALE, Robert0.0703125RepublicanCenter7885MElost1889
2227FERN�NDEZ, Antonio M.0.07DemocratCenter7884NMgreatest1902
2228FINE, Sidney Asher0.068965517DemocratLeft8284NYgreatest1903
2229LAFORE, John Armand, Jr.0.068965517RepublicanCenter8586PAgreatest1905
2230FOGARTY, John Edward0.068728522DemocratLeft7790RIgreatest1913
2231KEE, Maude Elizabeth0.068181818DemocratCenter8288WVlost1895
2232D'ALESANDRO, Thomas, Jr.0.06779661DemocratLeft7680MDgreatest1903
2233KOWALSKI, Frank0.06779661DemocratLeft8687CTgreatest1907
2234PRIEST, James Percy0.067114094DemocratRight7784TNlost1900
2235ELLIS, Clyde Taylor0.066666667DemocratRight7677ARgreatest1908
2236WHITAKER, John Albert0.066666667DemocratRight8082KYgreatest1901
2237O'CONOR, Herbert Romulus0.066666667DemocratCenter8082MDlost1896
2238UDALL, Stewart Lee0.066666667DemocratLeft8487AZgreatest1920
2239COFFIN, Frank Morey0.066666667DemocratCenter8586MEgreatest1919
2240JOHNSON, Thomas Francis0.066666667DemocratCenter8687MDgreatest1909
2241BARRY, Robert Raymond0.066666667RepublicanCenter8688NYgreatest1915
2242ST. ONGE, William Leon0.066176471DemocratLeft8891CTgreatest1914
2243NORTON, Mary Teresa0.06557377DemocratLeft6981NJmissionary1875
2244CARNAHAN, Albert Sidney Johnson0.065420561DemocratCenter7986MOlost1897
2245SHEPPARD, Morris0.064814815DemocratCenter5777TXmissionary1875
2246SASSCER, Lansdale Ghiselin0.064748201DemocratCenter7682MDlost1893
2247KENNEDY, Michael Joseph0.064516129DemocratLeft7677NYlost1897
2248ROOSEVELT, Franklin Delano, Jr.0.064516129DemocratLeft8183NYgreatest1914
2249KEE, John0.064285714DemocratLeft7382WVmissionary1874
2250DAVIS, Clifford0.064220183DemocratRight7688TNlost1897
2251COAD, Merwin0.064102564DemocratCenter8587IAgreatest1924
2252HARRIS, Winder Russell0.063829787DemocratRight7778VAlost1888
2253MORGAN, Thomas Ellsworth0.063636364DemocratCenter7994PAgreatest1906
2254MERROW, Chester Earl0.063218391RepublicanCenter7887NHgreatest1906
2255KLUCZYNSKI, John Carl0.062992126DemocratCenter8294ILlost1896
2256WOODHOUSE, Chase Going0.0625DemocratLeft7981CTlost1890
2257MAILLIARD, William Somers0.0625RepublicanCenter8393CAgreatest1917
2258GREEN, Theodore Francis0.061994609DemocratLeft7586RImissionary1867
2259KILDAY, Paul Joseph0.061728395DemocratRight7687TXlost1900
2260BATES, Joseph Bengal0.061538462DemocratRight7582KYlost1893
2261CURTIS, Laurence0.061403509RepublicanCenter8387MAlost1893
2262BOLAND, Patrick Joseph0.06097561DemocratLeft7277PAmissionary1880
2263HOWELL, Charles Robert0.060606061DemocratLeft8183NJgreatest1904
2264ASPINALL, Wayne Norviel0.06017192DemocratCenter8192COlost1896
2265DOOLEY, Edwin Benedict0.059701493RepublicanCenter8587NYgreatest1905
2266VINSON, Carl0.059649123DemocratRight6388GAlost1883
2267SPENCE, Brent0.059649123DemocratCenter7287KYmissionary1874
2268WALTER, Francis Eugene0.059479554DemocratCenter7388PAlost1894
2269PRICE, Emory Hilliard0.057692308DemocratRight7880FLlost1899
2270McCORMACK, John William0.057553957DemocratLeft7091MAlost1891
2271SEELY-BROWN, Horace, Jr.0.057377049RepublicanCenter8087CTgreatest1908
2272BARNES, James Martin0.056338028DemocratCenter7677ILlost1899
2273McGRANERY, James Patrick0.054794521DemocratLeft7578PAlost1895
2274ROGERS, Byron Giles0.054237288DemocratCenter8291COlost1900
2275KNUTSON, Coya Gjesdal0.054054054DemocratCenter8485MNgreatest1912
2276MILLER, Clement Woodnutt0.053571429DemocratCenter8687CAgreatest1916
2277RESNICK, Joseph Yale0.053571429DemocratLeft8990NYgreatest1924
2278HANSEN, Orval Howard0.053571429RepublicanCenter9193IDgreatest1926
2279CURLEY, James Michael0.052631579DemocratLeft6279MAmissionary1874
2280McNAMARA, Patrick Vincent0.052459016DemocratLeft8489MIlost1894
2281EBERHARTER, Herman Peter0.052083333DemocratLeft7585PAlost1892
2282MACIEJEWSKI, Anton Frank0.051724138DemocratLeft7677ILlost1893
2283BECKWORTH, Lindley Garrison, Sr.0.051671733DemocratRight7689TXgreatest1913
2284BYRNE, William Thomas0.051470588DemocratLeft7582NYmissionary1876
2285GREEN, William Joseph, Jr.0.050314465DemocratLeft7988PAgreatest1910
2286HAGEN, Harlan Francis0.050251256DemocratCenter8389CAgreatest1914
2287KEOGH, Eugene James0.05DemocratCenter7589NYgreatest1907
2288ROSS, Robert Tripp0.05RepublicanCenter8082NYgreatest1903
2289MURPHY, James Joseph0.05DemocratLeft8182NYlost1898
2290SICKLES, Carlton Ralph0.05DemocratLeft8889MDgreatest1921
2291ALBERT, Carl Bert0.049707602DemocratRight8094OKgreatest1908
2292RAINS, Albert McKinley0.049382716DemocratRight7988ALgreatest1902
2293LANHAM, Henderson Lovelace0.049382716DemocratRight8085GAlost1888
2294FALLON, George Hyde0.049079755DemocratCenter7991MDgreatest1902
2295PATRICK, Luther0.048780488DemocratCenter7579ALlost1894
2296CANNON, Arthur Patrick (Pat)0.048780488DemocratRight7679FLgreatest1904
2297HOCH, Daniel Knabb0.048780488DemocratCenter7879PAmissionary1866
2298O'BRIEN, Leo William0.048648649DemocratLeft8289NYlost1900
2299KIRWAN, Michael Joseph0.048469388DemocratCenter7591OHlost1886
2300McKINNON, Clinton Dotson0.047619048DemocratLeft8182CAgreatest1906
2301BOSONE, Reva Zilpha Beck0.047619048DemocratCenter8182UTlost1895
2302GORDON, Thomas Sylvy0.046875DemocratLeft7885ILlost1893
2303KEE, James0.046783626DemocratRight8992WVgreatest1917
2304KING, David Sjodahl0.046728972DemocratCenter8689UTgreatest1917
2305CAPOZZOLI, Louis Joseph0.046511628DemocratLeft7778NYgreatest1901
2306RYAN, Harold Martin0.046511628DemocratCenter8788MIgreatest1911
2307TENZER, Herbert0.045977011DemocratLeft8990NYgreatest1905
2308ROWAN, William A.0.045454545DemocratLeft7879ILmissionary1882
2309BUCKLEY, Charles Anthony0.04519774DemocratLeft7488NYlost1890
2310GARMATZ, Edward Alexander0.044568245DemocratCenter8092MDgreatest1903
2311DADDARIO, Emilio Quincy0.044554455DemocratLeft8691CTgreatest1918
2312TUPPER, Stanley Roger0.044247788RepublicanLeft8789MEgreatest1921
2313deGRAFFENRIED, Edward0.043478261DemocratRight8182ALlost1899
2314YORTY, Samuel William0.043478261DemocratCenter8283CAgreatest1909
2315MACHEN, Hervey Gilbert0.043478261DemocratCenter8990MDgreatest1916
2316O'HARA, Barratt0.043307087DemocratLeft8190ILmissionary1882
2317LYNCH, Walter Aloysius0.043103448DemocratLeft7681NYlost1894
2318ELLIOTT, Carl Atwood0.042944785DemocratRight8188ALgreatest1913
2319REAMS, Henry Frazier0.041666667OtherLeft8283OHlost1897
2320STIGLER, William Grady0.040816327DemocratCenter7882OKlost1891
2321DAWSON, William Levi0.040322581DemocratLeft7891ILlost1886
2322WITHERS, Garrett Lee0.04DemocratRight8183KYlost1884
2323MACHROWICZ, Thaddeus Michael0.03960396DemocratLeft8287MIlost1899
2324GRABOWSKI, Bernard Francis0.039473684DemocratLeft8889CTgreatest1923
2325OLSON, Alec Gehard0.039473684DemocratCenter8889MNsilent1930
2326FORAND, Aime Joseph0.038461538DemocratLeft7586RIlost1895
2327EDELSTEIN, Morris Michael0.038461538DemocratLeft7677NYlost1888
2328RAYFIEL, Leo Frederick0.038461538DemocratLeft7980NYlost1888
2329KILGORE, Harley Martin0.038043478DemocratCenter7784WVlost1893
2330SULLIVAN, John Berchmans0.037974684DemocratLeft7782MOlost1897
2331BOYLE, Charles Augustus0.037735849DemocratLeft8486ILgreatest1907
2332HAYS, Lawrence Brooks0.037593985DemocratRight7885ARlost1898
2333LINDSAY, John Vliet0.037383178RepublicanLeft8689NYgreatest1921
2334BOGGS, Thomas Hale, Sr.0.037333333DemocratRight7792LAgreatest1914
2335SIEMINSKI, Alfred Dennis0.037037037DemocratCenter8285NJgreatest1911
2336FRELINGHUYSEN, Peter Hood Ballantine, Jr.0.037037037RepublicanCenter8393NJgreatest1916
2337IRWIN, Donald Jay0.036036036DemocratLeft8690CTgreatest1926
2338FRIEDEL, Samuel Nathaniel0.034965035DemocratCenter8391MDlost1898
2339LESINSKI, John, Jr.0.034722222DemocratCenter8288MIgreatest1914
2340BALDWIN, Harry Streett0.034482759DemocratRight7879MDlost1894
2341BENTON, William0.034482759DemocratLeft8182CTlost1900
2342MULTER, Abraham Jacob0.034188034DemocratLeft8090NYlost1900
2343COOK, Robert Eugene0.033898305DemocratCenter8687OHgreatest1920
2344FOLGER, Alonzo Dillard0.033333333DemocratRight7677NClost1888
2345BURKE, Frank Welsh0.033333333DemocratCenter8687KYgreatest1920
2346KING, Cecil Rhodes0.033222591DemocratCenter7790CAlost1898
2347GALLAGHER, Cornelius Edward0.033195021DemocratLeft8692NJgreatest1921
2348SMITH, Frank Ellis0.033057851DemocratRight8287MSgreatest1918
2349DEANE, Charles Bennett0.032786885DemocratRight8084NClost1898
2350WALLHAUSER, George Marvin0.032608696RepublicanCenter8688NJlost1900
2351McGRATH, James Howard0.032258065DemocratLeft8081RIgreatest1903
2352WHITE, Compton Ignatius, Jr.0.032258065DemocratCenter8889IDgreatest1920
2353TRIMBLE, James William0.032DemocratRight7989ARlost1894
2354DOYLE, Clyde Gilman0.03164557DemocratCenter7988CAlost1887
2355ADDONIZIO, Hugh Joseph0.031007752DemocratLeft8187NJgreatest1914
2356HOLLAND, Elmer Joseph0.030769231DemocratCenter7790PAlost1894
2357RIVERS, Ralph Julian0.02962963DemocratCenter8689AKgreatest1903
2358BUCHANAN, Frank0.029411765DemocratLeft7982PAgreatest1902
2359KERSTEN, Charles Joseph0.029411765RepublicanCenter8083WIgreatest1902
2360SAUND, Dalip Singh (Judge)0.029411765DemocratCenter8587CAlost1899
2361FINNEGAN, Edward Rowan0.029411765DemocratLeft8788ILgreatest1905
2362JOHNSON, Lester Roland0.02919708DemocratCenter8388WIgreatest1901
2363SACKS, Leon0.028985507DemocratLeft7577PAgreatest1902
2364MILLER, George Paul0.028653295DemocratCenter7992CAlost1891
2365MYERS, Francis John0.027210884DemocratLeft7681PAgreatest1901
2366RHODES, George Milton0.026119403DemocratLeft8190PAlost1898
2367SANTANGELO, Alfred Edward0.025974026DemocratLeft8587NYgreatest1912
2368McMAHON, Brien0.025DemocratLeft7982CTgreatest1903
2369FAY, James Herbert0.024390244DemocratLeft7678NYlost1899
2370DOLLINGER, Isidore0.024096386DemocratLeft8186NYgreatest1903
2371SHELLEY, John Francis0.0234375DemocratCenter8188CAgreatest1905
2372GRANAHAN, Kathryn Elizabeth0.023255814DemocratLeft8587PAlost1894
2373JOELSON, Charles Samuel0.023121387DemocratLeft8791NJgreatest1916
2374RONAN, Daniel John0.022727273DemocratLeft8991ILgreatest1914
2375ANFUSO, Victor L'Episcopo0.02247191DemocratLeft8287NYgreatest1905
2376MURPHY, William Thomas0.021834061DemocratCenter8691ILlost1899
2377KARSTEN, Frank Melvin0.021428571DemocratCenter8090MOgreatest1913
2378KELLY, Edna Flannery0.020491803DemocratLeft8190NYgreatest1906
2379McDOWELL, Harris Brown, Jr.0.02027027DemocratCenter8489DEgreatest1906
2380COMBS, Jesse Martin0.02DemocratRight7982TXlost1889
2381HUBER, Walter B.0.019230769DemocratLeft7981OHgreatest1903
2382WEIS, Jessica McCullough0.019230769RepublicanCenter8687NYgreatest1901
2383LIBONATI, Roland Victor0.018867925DemocratCenter8588ILlost1900
2384GORSKI, Martin0.018518519DemocratLeft7881ILlost1886
2385WRIGHT, James Assion0.017857143DemocratLeft7778PAgreatest1902
2386MAGNUSON, Donald Hammer0.01754386DemocratCenter8387WAgreatest1911
2387HARDING, Ralph R.0.015384615DemocratCenter8788IDsilent1929
2388LANKFORD, Richard Estep0.015267176DemocratCenter8488MDgreatest1914
2389THORNBERRY, William Homer0.013245033DemocratRight8188TXgreatest1909
2390HOLTZMAN, Lester0.011494253DemocratLeft8387NYgreatest1913
2391HEALEY, James Christopher0.009090909DemocratCenter8488NYgreatest1909
2392ROOSEVELT, James0.007246377DemocratLeft8489CAgreatest1907
2393BYRON, William Devereux0DemocratCenter7677MDlost1895
2394TORRENS, James H.0DemocratLeft7879NYmissionary1874
2395DAUGHTON, Ralph Hunter0DemocratRight7879VAlost1885
2396LODGE, John Davis0RepublicanCenter8081CTgreatest1903
2397BAKEWELL, Claude Ignatius0RepublicanCenter8082MOgreatest1912
2398JONES, Hamilton Chamberlain0DemocratRight8082NClost1884
2399BURTON, Clarence Godber0DemocratRight8182VAlost1886
2400FUGATE, Thomas Bacon0DemocratRight8182VAlost1899
2401ZELENKO, Herbert0DemocratLeft8487NYgreatest1906
2402QUIGLEY, James Michael0DemocratLeft8486PAgreatest1918
2403TELLER, Ludwig0DemocratLeft8586NYgreatest1911
2404TOLL, Herman0DemocratLeft8689PAgreatest1907

57 Years of Congressional Voting on Foreign Policy in 35 Seconds and 705 Words

Below is an animation that depicts congressional voting patterns on foreign policy from 1935 until 1992. The data is faceted by party, Democrats on the left, Republicans on the right. Each dot represents a congressperson or senator, as indicated by shape. Each member is colorized by the region from which they hailed. Each member is situated by their position on a two-dimensional left-liberal – right-conservative political spectrum (x-axis). Each member is also situated on a y-axis that depicts their level of opposition in any given Congress, shown in the graphics title portion.

See the full-screen version here.

During the early interwar period (74th to 76th Congresses), the Republican party displayed higher opposition to American involvement in growing hostilities on the European continent. However, despite these patterns, plenty of Democrats across the political spectrum voted along a noninterventionist line. Particularly on the issue of intervention in the Spanish Civil War, both parties were in virtual agreement in both chambers of Congress.

However, with the threat of hostilities between Hitler and the western allies, Democratic and left-wing / Northern Republican opposition to U.S. policy fell rapidly. The Overton Window on American involvement in Europe’s war narrowed as Hitler’s forces goosestepped across the continent. On the eve of Pearl Harbor, only the rightwing of the Republican party, particularly its Midwestern cohort, posted significant opposition.

After the Allied victory in World War II (1945), domestic opinion on America’s role in the world began to take shape. Of all political factions in Congress, Northern and moderate Republicans were the most changed by the war. What few stragglers remained within these pockets of the GOP were converted by the Korean War when it became apparent that confrontation with the Soviets was here to stay. These Republicans joined an almost unanimous Democratic support for the Cold War and formed the power Cold War consensus animated U.S. policy throughout the conflict.

Despite this powerful consensus, resistance to the Cold War status quo remained in pockets of the far-right, particularly within the GOP’s rural Midwestern contingent. These holdouts adhered to conservative and libertarian critiques of the mass state and opposed critical facets of the confrontation. Among their points of dissent were:

These contours of dissent remained the norm during the early Cold War (79th until 90th Congresses, 1945-1969) until they were finally evaporated due to generational turnover within the Republican party and political realignment due to the Vietnam War.

In the wake of Vietnam, the contours of American attitudes when into turmoil. The growing New Right dissented to Nixon’s recognition of China but warmed to specific initiatives like covert aid in the Angolan Civil War. From the late 1960s onward, the right of the GOP became increasingly less Midwestern and more Southern. This shift from “flyover country” to the “gunbelt” solidified the homogenization of conservative thinking on foreign policy for the rest of the Cold War. Meanwhile, the Democratic party became the primary party of the opposition when a younger generation of Democrats was inspired by the excesses of the Vietnam War channeled their frustrations into other aspects of the Cold War.

This graphic depicts the primary party opposing U.S. foreign policy by congress from 1935 until 1992. The x-axis shows a given Congress, and the y-axis represents the difference between levels of party opposition. The higher on the axis, the greater the Republican opposition. The lower, the more significant the Democratic opposition.

During the Reagan era (97th to 101st Congresses), the poles of opposition remained flipped. The Democratic party, particularly with its left-wing and some left-wing Republicans, offered stiff resistance to certain defense spending items and aid to militias in Latin America.

By 1991-1992 (101st to 102nd Congresses), the parties and their various segments settled into the same range of opposition. While there were a few outliers and points of disagreement on specific interventions, significant differences in ideology, party, and region evaporated when the U.S. entered unipolar hegemony. This homogenization of foreign policy thinking solidified concepts of America’s role in the world and set the stage for the muscular response to 9/11 and the reignition of hostilities with the Russian federation.

Fly Over Country, the Gunbelt, and the Nationalization of America Internationalism.

There is a surprising lack of scholarship on Midwestern conservatism before World War II. What has been written by historians and political scientists is largely concerned with how the region fits into the ascendence of New Right. Examples include The Conservative Heartland: A Political History of the Postwar American Midwest. Conversely, there seems to be an endless body of work have been written on the “Southern Strategy,” its causes, and its impact upon the realignment of Republican conservatism in particular and American politics in general.

Before World War II, the Midwest was a basion of noninterventionism, both conservative and progressive. Leading noninterventionist political figures and organizations like the America First Committee were active within the region. Opposition was assertive within rural, conservative, and Republican locations.

The rural Midwest served as the backbone of a political faction later known as “the Old Right.” The Old Right was an assortment of fervent anti-New Dealers, trade protectionists, nativists, and noninterventionists. Their political theories were rooted in the region’s history with the Jeffersonian wing of the GOP and were amplified by World War I and the New Deal.

The Old Right opposed to, at least in theory, to everything big: big government; big armies, big labor; big business; and big banks. They embraced romantic notions of American exceptionalism and scorned Europe as a land of iniquity. The Old World represented the worst of all political and cultural outcomes: monarchism; imperialism; corporatism; and socialism. These core beliefs translated into foreign policy positions that opposed entangling alliances, government-directed foreign investment, and large standing armies. Additionally, they advocated for restraining U.S. political influence to the Western Hemisphere. 

Despite their prominence within the Republican right, they suffered a rapid decline within the party. The Midwestern right was eventually surpassed by the South, West, and Southwest (collectively known as the Sunbelt) as the center of Republican conservatism. Unlike the rural Midwest, the Sunbelt (aka “the Gunbelt”) was firmly integrated into America’s Cold War economy.

The collapse of the (primarily) Midwestern Republican right remains a criminally understudied aspect of American political history. This decline is interesting to me as the rural Midwest was a basion of noninterventionism before World War II. Pockets of noninterventionism remained well into the Cold War before finally withering away under causes that I’ve yet to grasp fully.

What was the source of this decline? An obvious answer would be the Midwest’s steady population exodus in the post-war period. A population decline could have led to an erosion of national political power, especially in the House. However, this presents an insufficient explanation. When comparing the relative rates of decline between all parties and the various components of the GOP, when can see that the Republican right’s relative size within the Midwest fell considerably faster than the Midwest’s overall representation. Additionally, similar rates of decline also occurred between the Midwestern right’s proportion in the House and the Senate, despite the latter being fixed to two persons per state. 

This graphic depicts the relative size of the Midwestern representing within Congress from 1914 until 2020. The data is divided by the Midwests size in the overall electorate (purple), the Democratic party (blue), the center of the Republican party (solid red), and the Republican right (dashed red). The graphic is faceted by chamber, House on the left, and Senate on the right. The shaded bars represent critical periods in U.S. foreign policy during the late 20th Century. From left to right: U.S. involvement in WWII, the Korean War, the escalation of the Vietnam War, the election of Ronald Reagan, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union. The right-wing of the GOP was solidly Midwestern until beginning its decline during the early 1950s. By the mid-1960s, the Midwestern right was in freefall. During the 1960s, the Republican Midwest became more centrist, particularly in the House. The Democratic Party also made gains in the Midwest, particularly within the Senate. The composition of these forces spelled the end of the Old Right. It would not be until the election of Donald Trump that the proportion of right-wing Republicans in the Midwest outgrew the Democratic Party or the center of the GOP.

Another obvious answer might lay in election losses as seats changed between Republicans and Democrats. During the high Cold War, the Democratic party was virtually in lockstep with the Cold War consensus. A mass change from the GOP to the Dems would have resulted in an erasure of the Midwest’s distinct noninterventionist political culture, or at least that culture’s representation in the federal government. Looking at the trends, there is undoubtedly something to his hypothesis. The Democrats made significant Midwestern gains between the 80th and 88th congresses (1947 – 1965), particularly in Senate. With the end of the Cold War (102nd Congress, 1991), the center of the GOP and the Democratic party enjoyed similar representation rates in the Senate, with the Republican right firmly in the cellar. While the Midwest still hosted some right-wing Republicans in the House upon the end of the Cold War, they were nowhere nearly as prominent as during previous iterations of the GOP

This graphic depicts Midwestern foreign policy voting trends by House district from 1935 until 1992. Each row represents a House seat (y-axis). Each cell displays a House Representatives’ level of opposition in any given Congress (x-axis). The opposition is color scaled from green to red—the redder the cell, the higher their resistance. The final congress of any given Representative is outlined in black. The data is faceted by party, the Democrats on the left and Republicans on the right. Of the two parties, the GOP displayed considerably higher levels of opposition before U.S. entry into World War II and during the early Cold War. However, that opposition would fade over time. Conversely, Midwestern Democrats were largely supportive of U.S. policy during the early Cold War. However, during the Second Cold War and the height of the Reagan administration, Midwestern Democrats posted significant opposition. However, this trend was short-lived, and the Midwest would homogenize in its support by the end of the Cold War.

When comparing the electoral fortunes between the GOP’s two primary ideological cohorts, the center, and the right, the former faired considerably better over time. It would appear that the Midwest tacked to the political center. There was also clearly a change in noninterventionism within the Midwestern right (such as it was) after the 90th Congress (1967-1969). Those Representatives who began their careers in the latter half of the Cold War displayed similar voting patterns on foreign policy to their Midwestern centrist colleagues and the rest of the GOP. When Rep. H.R. Gross (IA-3) retired in 1975, the Old Right and its redoubt in the Midwest went extinct.

This graphic depicts Midwestern Republican foreign policy voting trends by House district from 1935 until 1992. Each row represents a House seat (y-axis). Each cell displays a House Representatives’ level of opposition in any given Congress (x-axis). The opposition is color scaled from green to red—the redder the cell, the higher their resistance. The final Congress of any given Representative is outlined in black. The data is faceted by party, the centrists on the left and rightwingers on the right. The shaded bars represent critical periods in U.S. foreign policy during the late 20th Century. From left to right: U.S. involvement in WWII, the Korean War, the escalation of the Vietnam War, the election of Ronald Reagan, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union. Both ideological cohorts displayed elevated opposition on the eve of American entry into WWII. However, the opposition of Midwestern centrists fell after the Korean War. Midwestern conservatives, however, maintain higher levels of opposition throughout the early Cold War. It would not be until the start of the Vietnam War that the bulk of the Midwestern right would leave office.

While elections alone do not explain this transformation, there is one, in particular, that does appear to have had an outsized impact upon the Midwestern right, the 1964 general election. The GOP was absolutely boat raced in 1964. In addition to the monumental defeat of Barry Goldwater, the Democrats gained supermajorities in both chambers of Congress. Historians often cite Goldwater’s loss as a watershed event for American conservatism. Scholars and pundits have interpreted the defeat as the first salvo in a rightward turn for the country, culminating in Reagan’s election in 1980.

While 1964 may have constituted the birth of the New Right, it spelled the death of the Old Right. The down-ballot drag of Goldwater and his perceived militarism ironically punished the handful of Old Right Republicans who still resisted critical facets of the Cold War. Midwest Republicans lost several pivotal seats held by veteran politicians. The Midwestern Representatives incumbents who were defeated that year were more conservative and more noninterventionist than any regional cohort within the party. Those defeated Midwesterners averaged an opposition percentage of 48% and were considerably more conservative than those Midwesterns who won compared to other Republicans from elsewhere in the party.

OutcomeRegionMean IdeologyMean OppositionNumberMean AgeMean First CongressMean BornPercentage
LostMidwest0.3180.4867669641657.312584.18751906.68750.228571429
LostNorth-0.11950.2826908231055.984.21908.10.23255814
LostRockies-0.01450.238602849254.582.51909.50.5
LostSouth0.5580.4546360921368819280.083333333
LostSouthwest0.82150.56346783238.5861925.50.5
LostWest-0.0330.32323899455.7582.251908.250.19047619
WonMidwest0.1263148150.3595288035451.703703784.111111111912.2962960.771428571
WonNorth-0.3570.2202797643352.15151515841911.8484850.76744186
WonRockies0.28250.49007687238.587.51925.50.5
WonSouth0.2009090910.3392019651144.5454545585.909090911919.4545450.916666667
WonSouthwest0.320.334488773256.582.51907.50.5
WonWest0.0741176470.2731090931754.4117647183.764705881909.5882350.80952381

The election also served as the last mechanism of a generational turnover for the GOP and its rightwing. The mean age of Southern Republicans who won was 44, Midwesterners who lost, 57. Not surprisingly, the mean first Congress for the Midwesterners was the 84th (1955-1957), for Southerners who won, the 88th (1963-1965). Goldwater did not appear to impact the down-ballot races within the Southern states. The small but sturdy Southern Republican cohort largely defended their seats (91% of incumbents won). Southern Republicans also picked up seven new House seats. The combination of incumbent wins and new members accelerated the ascent of a younger New Right. The center of gravity for the Republican right quickly swung towards the South and the West and thereby homogenized the party’s foreign policy vision for the end of the Cold War.

This graphic depicts Midwestern Republican foreign policy voting trends by House district from 1935 until 1992. Each row represents a House seat (y-axis). Each cell displays a House Representatives’ level of opposition in any given Congress (x-axis). The opposition is color scaled from green to red—the redder the cell, the higher their resistance. The data is faceted by party, the centrists on the left and rightwingers on the right. The shaded bars represent critical periods in U.S. foreign policy during the late 20th Century. From left to right: U.S. involvement in WWII, the Korean War, the escalation of the Vietnam War, the election of Ronald Reagan, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union. The center of gravity of the Midwestern right shifted from the Midwest to the South, West, and Southwest after the Vietnam War. What Midwestern Republican conservatives that remained would vote similarly to their colleagues from other regions of the country.

When comparing the evolution of the Midwest to the rest of the party, it becomes apparent that what regional differences exited within the Republican party were firmly erased by the end of the Vietnam War. The Midwestern Republicans, on average, tacked firmly to the center. The average Southwestern, Western, and Southern Republican firmly tacked the right. However, by the Reagan revolution, ideology and geography were irreverent to Republicans’ foreign policy perspectives. They’re all interventionists now…save for this man, of course

This interactive graphic depicts the ideological and foreign policy evolution of the Republican Party and regional cohorts. Each orb represents a region of the GOP. The x-axis depicts Congress, the y-axis is the ideological average (the higher the number the more conservative), and the z-axis depicts each regional cohort’s average opposition to U.S. foreign policy. Each orb is sized by its relative size within the GOP. The Republican Midwest tacked dramatically to the center throughout the Cold War as it opposition steadily dropped.

When compared to some of my other work, this research led me to a hypothesis: the regional, educational, and ideological particularities of the Republican Party were consumed into a national narrative of America in the world by media and political centralization. The new nationalized Republican narrative closely resembled that of the Old Left, albeit with some of the trappings of the Old Right, particularly a penchant for unilateralism. By the end of the Cold War, this process eliminated significant dissent on U.S. foreign policy and set the stage for a (nearly) unquestioned transition into an American unipolar empire.

After 1989 there were only two flavors of American foreign policy thinking in Washington. Voters could pick from the multilateral* internationalism of the Democrats or the unilateral internationalism of the Republicans. The power elite in Washington and the parties no longer represented distinct ideologies or regional perspectives. Coke or Pepsi, you could choose either, but they were both colas.

As America’s political geographies change again, this time as an urban v. rural divide, right-wing opposition to U.S. foreign policy is nationalizing while conversely centralizing in the country’s rural and exurban communities.

If that sounds a little too tin-foil-haty for you, I’ll leave you with a quote from a scholar, Michal Lind. Lind’s work has focused heavily on the nationalization of American political culture, which is relevant here.

“[T]he real story of the evolution of the American class system in the last half century [is] toward the consolitation of a national ruling class. [R]egional particiates have been absorbed into a single, increasingly homogeneous national oligarchy”

Michael Lind, “The New National American Elite” Tablet, 19 Janurary 2021, https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/news/articles/new-national-american-elite

*Offers of multilateralism are not redeemable for all wars or conflicts. Substantive offers are only redeemable by the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. All other offers are only valid for peacekeeping missions, cushy assignments, or photo ops. Void in the event of serious casualties or domestic backlash. Please consult your parliaments, congresses, or military juntas for details

So You Say You Want an Evolution? Generational v. Ideological Decline within Republican Noninterventionism

During research for “Partisans of the Old Republic: Right-Wing Opposition to U.S. Foreign Policy, 1934-1992,” I have been vexed by one question more than any other: how much of the decline of “isolationism” can be attributed to individuals flipping from noninterventionism, versus a more extensive, generational evolution within the American right. I have been searching for a computational way to approach this problem for months.

Current scholarship on the decline of interventionism within the Republican party focuses on the importance of events. Political historians and national security scholars often cite the impact of World War II and Korea as being the combined death knells of the Old Right and their noninterventionist tendencies.

This thesis is supported by a deluge of Republicans who saw the light after World War II or the Korean War. The combination of a power vacuum left by the weakening of the British Empire coupled with the threat of the Soviet Union caused these holdouts to give up their noninterventionist tendencies in the name of fighting communism. The abrupt turn of Senator Arthur Vandenberg after WWII is a prime example of an individual evolution serving the impetus for the transformation of the GOP. The career of Rep. Robert Chiperfield is indicative of this trend within the House of Representatives after he flipped upon the start of the Korean War. A young Gerald Ford, then a Yale law student, was a founding member of the America First Committee. Hell, even Barry Goldwater opposed U.S. government policy in French Indochina during his first stint in the U.S. Senate (believe it or not).

Despite such examples, the explanation of individual evolution has seemed lacking. I have been pouring (often obsessing) over this data for two years now, and there seem to be enough loose ends to challenge the importance of this thesis. How can I put it to the test using my dataset?

I may have stumbled upon a solution.

I decided to use the voting records that I have compiled thus far to determine how many congressional members manifested a noticeable decline in their opposition throughout their careers. Since I am looking for broader trends, I decided to limit my search to Representatives and Senators who served at least four congresses (eight years). Such a span would be more likely to cover a comprehensive array of events, presidential administration, wars, and changes into congressional governance. This sample will likely serve as a reliable proxy for the party as a whole.

Name
Starting Opposition MeanEnding Opposition MeanChangeWing of PartyRegionGeneration
ADAIR, Edwin Ross0.5192307692307690.3363697705802970.182860998650472CenterMidwestgreatest
AIKEN, George David0.5802277432712220.2231415988255710.357086144445651CenterNorthlost
ALLEN, Leo Elwood0.7462121212121210.4607142857142860.285497835497835CenterMidwestlost
ANDERSEN, Herman Carl0.6840277777777780.5039682539682540.180059523809524RightMidwestlost
ANDERSON, John Bayard0.5666666666666670.299836601307190.266830065359477CenterMidwestgreatest
ANDRESEN, August Herman0.8257575757575760.4969696969696970.328787878787879RightMidwestlost
ANDREWS, Walter Gresham0.7817460317460320.09523809523809520.686507936507937CenterNorthlost
ARENDS, Leslie Cornelius0.7576923076923080.09040959040959040.667282717282717CenterMidwestlost
ASHBROOK, John Milan0.6470099667774090.3957488554610860.251261111316323RightMidwestsilent
BATES, George Joseph0.6150568181818180.1916666666666670.423390151515151CenterNorthlost
BATTIN, James Franklin0.5196428571428570.525641025641026-0.00599816849816848RightRockiesgreatest
BEAMER, John Valentine0.5192307692307690.522727272727273-0.00349650349650354CenterMidwestlost
BENDER, George Harrison0.5250.08391608391608390.441083916083916CenterMidwestlost
BLACKNEY, William Wallace0.6545454545454550.3939393939393940.260606060606061CenterMidwestmissionary
BRADLEY, Frederick Van Ness0.6391941391941390.916666666666667-0.277472527472528CenterMidwestlost
BREWSTER, Ralph Owen0.8461538461538460.4228571428571430.423296703296703CenterNorthlost
BRICKER, John William0.5360623781676410.4575163398692810.0785460382983603RightMidwestlost
BROCK, William Emerson, III0.5074404761904760.1982341557813260.309206320409151CenterSouthsilent
BROOKS, Charles Wayland0.60.5979532163742690.00204678362573096CenterMidwestlost
BROWN, Clarence J.0.5782145782145780.5535714285714290.0246431496431496CenterMidwestlost
BROYHILL, James Thomas0.5241935483870970.2716346153846150.252558933002481RightSouthgreatest
BUDGE, Hamer Harold0.5576923076923080.568103448275862-0.0104111405835543RightRockiesgreatest
BUFFETT, Howard Homan0.5166240409207160.741666666666667-0.225042625745951RightMidwestgreatest
BURDICK, Usher Lloyd0.7424242424242420.5761904761904760.166233766233766LeftMidwestmissionary
BURTON, Laurence Junior0.5072115384615380.3817567567567570.125454781704782RightRockiesgreatest
BUTLER, Hugh Alfred0.6382113821138210.641025641025641-0.00281425891181986RightMidwestmissionary
CAPEHART, Homer Earl0.5535714285714290.4679089026915110.0856625258799172CenterMidwestlost
CAPPER, Arthur0.8705882352941180.3596491228070180.5109391124871RightMidwestmissionary
CARLSON, Frank0.9583333333333330.1936274509803920.764705882352941CenterMidwestlost
CARTER, Albert Edward0.5272727272727270.30.227272727272727CenterWestmissionary
CASE, Francis Higbee0.850.4508281573498960.399171842650104RightMidwestlost
CHIPERFIELD, Robert Bruce0.6162878787878790.05405405405405410.562233824733825CenterMidwestlost
CHURCH, Ralph Edwin0.7424242424242420.875-0.132575757575758CenterMidwestlost
CLANCY, Donald Daniel0.5105691056910570.4579838340704590.0525852716205978CenterMidwestgreatest
CLASON, Charles Russell0.6931818181818180.08333333333333330.609848484848485CenterNorthlost
CLAUSEN, Donald Holst0.5355555555555560.2939567951873120.241598760368244RightWestgreatest
CLAWSON, Delwin Morgan0.5817307692307690.4303193335647340.151411435666035RightWestgreatest
CLEVENGER, Cliff0.6250.5576923076923080.0673076923076923RightMidwestlost
COLE, William Sterling0.7735042735042740.1363636363636360.637140637140637CenterNorthgreatest
COLLIER, Harold Reginald0.5820105820105820.3132183908045980.268792191205984CenterMidwestgreatest
CORBETT, Robert James0.5291858678955450.134523809523810.394662058371736CenterNorthgreatest
CORDON, Guy0.5227272727272730.3409090909090910.181818181818182RightWestlost
CRAWFORD, Fred Lewis0.8750.6666666666666670.208333333333333RightMidwestlost
CULKIN, Francis Dugan0.90.1666666666666670.733333333333333CenterNorthmissionary
CUNNINGHAM, Glenn Clarence0.55036630036630.335317460317460.21504884004884CenterMidwestgreatest
CURTIS, Carl Thomas0.6442307692307690.3280487804878050.316181988742964CenterMidwestgreatest
DAVIS, James John0.6458333333333330.4728381374722840.172995195861049RightNorthmissionary
DERWINSKI, Edward Joseph0.5782894736842110.2098693335279950.368420140156216CenterMidwestgreatest
DEVINE, Samuel Leeper0.6107142857142860.4228229379686440.187891347745642RightMidwestgreatest
DICKINSON, William Louis0.6116959064327490.2826688815060910.329027024926658CenterSouthgreatest
DIRKSEN, Everett McKinley0.6227272727272730.1950240770465490.427703195680724CenterMidwestlost
DITTER, John William0.6969696969696970.2714285714285710.425541125541126CenterNorthlost
DOLE, Robert Joseph0.5648912228057010.1653784648187630.399512757986938CenterMidwestgreatest
DONDERO, George Anthony0.7636363636363640.4065934065934070.357042957042957CenterMidwestlost
DOUGLAS, Fred James0.7923387096774190.190476190476190.601862519201229CenterNorthmissionary
DUNCAN, John James0.5661068044788970.1956521739130430.370454630565854RightSouthgreatest
DWORSHAK, Henry Clarence0.6011363636363640.666666666666667-0.0655303030303032RightRockieslost
EATON, Charles Aubrey0.7386363636363640.06250.676136363636364CenterNorthmissionary
EDWARDS, William Jackson (Jack)0.5153508771929820.180551523947750.334799353245232RightSouthsilent
ELSTON, Charles Henry0.5773237179487180.5142857142857140.0630380036630037CenterMidwestlost
ENGEL, Albert Joseph0.8219696969696970.1666666666666670.65530303030303CenterMidwestlost
FISH, Hamilton0.7142857142857140.2363636363636360.477922077922078CenterNorthlost
GEORGE, Myron Virgil0.7916666666666670.2531055900621120.538561076604555CenterMidwestlost
GIFFORD, Charles Laceille0.7388888888888890.650.0888888888888889CenterNorthmissionary
GILCHRIST, Fred Cramer0.8214285714285710.293750.527678571428571RightMidwestmissionary
GILLIE, George W.0.5567434210526320.608333333333333-0.0515899122807018CenterMidwestmissionary
GOLDWATER, Barry Morris0.7169709989258860.1323436112168510.584627387709035RightSouthwestgreatest
GRAHAM, Louis Edward0.5333333333333330.2916666666666670.241666666666667CenterNorthmissionary
GRANT, Robert Allen0.5815972222222220.4568452380952380.124751984126984CenterMidwestgreatest
GROSS, Harold Royce0.7179487179487180.6752491694352160.042699548513502RightMidwestlost
GURNEY, Edward John0.5906593406593410.2112890922959570.379370248363383RightSouthgreatest
GUYER, Ulysses Samuel0.8831168831168830.3301282051282050.552988677988678RightMidwestmissionary
GWYNNE, John Williams0.7878787878787880.5714285714285710.216450216450216RightMidwestlost
HALL, Durward Gorham0.6076576576576580.4505007704160250.157156887241633RightMidwestgreatest
HALLECK, Charles Abraham0.7346153846153850.26188257222740.472732812387985CenterMidwestlost
HANCOCK, Clarence Eugene0.6515151515151510.1552631578947370.496251993620415CenterNorthlost
HANSEN, George Vernon0.5444444444444440.3418019289578920.202642515486552RightRockiessilent
HARDEN, Cecil Murray0.5181818181818180.1712643678160920.346917450365726CenterMidwestlost
HARNESS, Forest Arthur0.6274671052631580.650724637681159-0.0232575324180015CenterMidwestlost
HARRISON, Robert Dinsmore0.6442307692307690.4642857142857140.179945054945055RightMidwestlost
HARRISON, William Henry0.5419580419580420.517783291976840.0241747499812015RightRockieslost
HARSHA, William Howard0.5298245614035090.4518139220327520.0780106393707567RightMidwestgreatest
HARTLEY, Fred Allan, Jr.0.5777777777777780.3026315789473680.275146198830409CenterNorthgreatest
HESS, William Emil0.6818181818181820.129629629629630.552188552188552CenterMidwestlost
HOFFMAN, Clare Eugene0.8090909090909090.7666666666666670.0424242424242425RightMidwestmissionary
HOFFMAN, Richard William0.6931818181818180.5584415584415580.13474025974026CenterMidwestlost
HOPE, Clifford Ragsdale0.88461538461538500.884615384615385RightMidwestlost
HRUSKA, Roman Lee0.5384615384615380.1799242424242420.358537296037296CenterMidwestgreatest
HULL, Merlin0.8666666666666670.7482517482517480.118414918414918LeftMidwestmissionary
HUTCHINSON, J. Edward0.5450395617772370.4829365079365080.0621030538407288CenterMidwestgreatest
JENKINS, Thomas Albert0.7552447552447550.2939393939393940.461305361305361CenterMidwestmissionary
JENNER, William Ezra0.5866666666666670.847222222222222-0.260555555555556RightMidwestgreatest
JENSEN, Benton Franklin0.5761904761904760.59047619047619-0.0142857142857143RightMidwestlost
JOHANSEN, August Edgar0.5178571428571430.647465437788018-0.129608294930876RightMidwestgreatest
JOHNSON, Anton Joseph0.650349650349650.776785714285714-0.126436063936064RightMidwestmissionary
JOHNSON, James Paul (Jim)0.5213122605363980.534666666666667-0.0133544061302682CenterRockiessilent
JOHNSON, Noble Jacob0.6325604838709680.584210526315790.0483499575551782CenterMidwestlost
JONES, Robert Franklin0.6250.816666666666667-0.191666666666667RightMidwestgreatest
JONKMAN, Bartel John0.6154411764705880.3111413043478260.304299872122762CenterMidwestlost
JORDAN, Leonard Beck (Len)0.7748987854251010.2700886189385640.504810166486537CenterRockieslost
KEARNS, Carroll Dudley0.5166666666666670.1710526315789470.345614035087719CenterNorthlost
KEEFE, Frank Bateman0.5861111111111110.50.086111111111111CenterMidwestlost
KINZER, John Roland0.7424242424242420.3611111111111110.381313131313131CenterNorthmissionary
KNUTSON, Harold0.8666666666666670.8219696969696970.0446969696969697RightMidwestmissionary
LAMBERTSON, William Purnell0.8295454545454550.6784989858012170.151046468744238RightMidwestmissionary
LANDIS, Gerald Wayne0.5962171052631580.5653409090909090.0308761961722488CenterMidwestlost
LANGER, William0.6679536679536680.6213282247765010.0466254431771673RightMidwestlost
LEMKE, William0.7878787878787880.7857142857142860.00216450216450215CenterMidwestmissionary
LEWIS, Earl Ramage0.5151515151515150.3920454545454550.123106060606061CenterMidwestlost
LODGE, Henry Cabot, Jr.0.5278688524590160.04976851851851850.478100333940498CenterNorthgreatest
MAAS, Melvin Joseph0.5666666666666670.3564814814814820.210185185185185CenterMidwestlost
MALONE, George Wilson0.720.75233918128655-0.0323391812865497RightRockieslost
MARTIN, David Thomas0.5562613430127040.3253818790541950.230879463958509RightMidwestgreatest
MARTIN, Joseph William, Jr.0.7555555555555560.1439393939393940.611616161616162CenterNorthlost
MARTIN, Thomas Ellsworth0.515550239234450.1548582995951420.360691939639308CenterMidwestlost
MASON, Noah Morgan0.7571428571428570.804812834224599-0.0476699770817418RightMidwestmissionary
McCULLOCH, William Moore0.5636363636363640.1702302631578950.393406100478469CenterMidwestgreatest
McLEAN, Donald Holman0.6461538461538460.1945945945945950.451559251559251CenterNorthlost
McNARY, Charles Linza0.5833333333333330.50.0833333333333333RightWestmissionary
McVEY, William Estus0.6060606060606060.5840455840455840.0220150220150219CenterMidwestlost
MICHEL, Robert Henry0.6099624060150380.1459595959595960.464002810055442CenterMidwestgreatest
MICHENER, Earl Cory0.8212121212121210.1778846153846150.643327505827506CenterMidwestmissionary
MILLER, Jack Richard0.5549450549450550.1973029233414790.357642131603576CenterMidwestgreatest
MOORE, Arch Alfred, Jr.0.5449735449735450.4650238473767890.0799496975967563CenterSouthgreatest
MORSE, Wayne Lyman0.5263157894736840.1764705882352940.34984520123839LeftWestlost
MOTT, James Wheaton0.550.02777777777777780.522222222222222CenterWestlost
MUNDT, Karl Earl0.5306818181818180.1587084148727980.37197340330902CenterMidwestlost
MURRAY, Reid Fred0.6742424242424240.5416666666666670.132575757575758CenterMidwestlost
NELSON, Charles Pembroke0.5555555555555560.4772727272727270.0782828282828283CenterNorthgreatest
NYE, Gerald Prentice0.8888888888888890.5843454790823210.304543409806568RightMidwestlost
O'KONSKI, Alvin Edward0.5964912280701750.5017543859649120.0947368421052631RightMidwestgreatest
OSMERS, Frank Charles, Jr.0.6451048951048950.05361305361305360.591491841491842CenterNorthgreatest
PAUL, Ronald Ernest0.735794183445190.7217846633200620.0140095201251278RightSouthwestsilent
PITTENGER, William Alvin0.569696969696970.3989473684210530.170749601275917CenterMidwestlost
PLUMLEY, Charles Albert0.6969696969696970.3626373626373630.334332334332334CenterNorthmissionary
POWERS, David Lane0.730303030303030.1421568627450980.588146167557932CenterNorthlost
PRESSLER, Larry Lee0.5315407973356840.2354077825159910.296133014819693CenterMidwestsilent
QUILLEN, James Henry0.5733333333333330.2866300366300370.286703296703297RightSouthgreatest
REECE, Brazilla Carroll0.6318181818181820.3994708994708990.232347282347282RightSouthlost
REED, Chauncey William0.7090909090909090.50.209090909090909CenterMidwestlost
REED, Clyde Martin0.7249169435215950.1405228758169930.584394067704601RightMidwestmissionary
REED, Daniel Alden0.750.4851190476190480.264880952380952RightNorthmissionary
REES, Edward Herbert0.8787878787878790.4413793103448280.437408568443051CenterMidwestlost
REID, Charlotte Thompson0.58156498673740.23240165631470.349163330422701CenterMidwestgreatest
REVERCOMB, William Chapman0.7356459330143540.5335497835497840.202096149464571RightSouthlost
RICH, Robert Fleming0.9583333333333330.8376623376623380.120670995670996RightNorthlost
ROBSION, John Marshall0.7167832167832170.741071428571429-0.0242882117882117RightSouthmissionary
RODGERS, Robert Lewis0.510080645161290.3195488721804510.190531772980839CenterNorthmissionary
ROUDEBUSH, Richard Lowell0.5582844574780060.3950892857142860.16319517176372RightMidwestgreatest
ROUSSELOT, John Harbin0.6556776556776560.3536437246963560.302033930981299RightWestgreatest
SCHADEBERG, Henry Carl0.6152228763666950.4405878674171360.174635008949559CenterMidwestgreatest
SCHERLE, William Joseph0.5066782810685250.4750337381916330.0316445428768921RightMidwestgreatest
SCHOEPPEL, Andrew Frank0.6623529411764710.593750.0686029411764706RightMidwestlost
SCRIVNER, Errett Power0.6133333333333330.4675925925925930.145740740740741CenterMidwestlost
SHAFER, Paul Werntz0.8615384615384620.5833333333333330.278205128205128CenterMidwestlost
SHEEHAN, Timothy Patrick0.6181818181818180.5769230769230770.0412587412587413CenterMidwestgreatest
SHIPSTEAD, Henrik0.8333333333333330.848684210526316-0.0153508771929824RightMidwestmissionary
SHORT, Dewey Jackson0.6969696969696970.50.196969696969697RightMidwestlost
SHUSTER, E. G. (Bud)0.5659785732950090.2947990543735220.271179518921487RightNorthsilent
SILER, Eugene0.580.634848484848485-0.0548484848484847RightSouthlost
SIMPSON, Richard Murray0.650.2033333333333330.446666666666667CenterNorthlost
SKUBITZ, Joe0.5094537815126050.3638308582934810.145622923219124RightMidwestgreatest
SMITH, Frederick Cleveland0.6840909090909090.964285714285714-0.280194805194805RightMidwestlost
SMITH, H. Allen0.5952380952380950.342190016103060.253048079135036RightWestgreatest
SMITH, Wint0.7833333333333330.6458333333333330.1375RightMidwestlost
SNYDER, Marion Gene0.590722495894910.3196016771488470.271120818746063RightSouthsilent
SPRINGER, Raymond Smiley0.5939393939393940.7-0.106060606060606CenterMidwestmissionary
STEFAN, Karl0.9230769230769230.5961538461538460.326923076923077RightMidwestlost
SUMNER, Jessie0.6636363636363640.696524064171123-0.0328877005347594RightMidwestlost
SYMMS, Steven Douglas0.5811444652908070.197865811131260.383278654159547RightRockiessilent
TABER, John0.679487179487180.4175824175824180.261904761904762RightNorthmissionary
TAFT, Robert Alphonso0.6336846213895390.1764705882352940.457214033154245CenterMidwestlost
TALLE, Henry Oscar0.531250.4370370370370370.094212962962963CenterMidwestlost
TAYLOR, Gene0.5156641604010020.2301521614566750.285511998944327RightMidwestsilent
THOMAS, John0.6953947368421050.593750.101644736842105RightRockiesmissionary
THOMAS, John Parnell0.6314935064935070.2337662337662340.397727272727273CenterNorthlost
THOMSON, Vernon Wallace0.5333333333333330.1771456123432980.356187720990035CenterMidwestgreatest
TIBBOTT, Harve0.5256756756756760.315476190476190.210199485199485CenterNorthlost
TOBEY, Charles William0.950.50.45CenterNorthmissionary
TOWER, John Goodwin0.77343750.1129032258064520.660534274193548CenterSouthwestgreatest
TREADWAY, Allen Towner0.7013888888888890.2222222222222220.479166666666667CenterNorthmissionary
UTT, James Boyd0.5166666666666670.55-0.0333333333333334RightWestlost
VAN PELT, William Kaiser0.6130952380952380.636904761904762-0.0238095238095237RightMidwestgreatest
VAN ZANDT, James Edward0.5043859649122810.04819976771196280.456186197200318CenterNorthlost
VANDENBERG, Arthur Hendrick0.6785714285714290.0250.653571428571429CenterMidwestlost
VELDE, Harold Himmel0.6258741258741260.3106060606060610.315268065268065CenterMidwestgreatest
VORYS, John Martin0.5512820512820510.1310541310541310.42022792022792CenterMidwestlost
VURSELL, Charles Wesley0.5183823529411760.109890109890110.408492243051067CenterMidwestmissionary
WEAVER, Phillip Hart0.5164835164835160.4342105263157890.0822729901677269RightMidwestgreatest
WHERRY, Kenneth Spicer0.825163398692810.690476190476190.13468720821662RightMidwestlost
WIGGLESWORTH, Richard Bowditch0.5032467532467530.07142857142857140.431818181818182CenterNorthlost
WILEY, Alexander0.7253968253968250.1066715542521990.618725271144626CenterMidwestlost
WILLIAMS, John James0.7046783625730990.4285994251371830.276078937435916RightSouthgreatest
WINTER, Thomas Daniel0.6235632183908050.5487012987012990.074861919689506RightMidwestlost
WITHROW, Gardner Robert0.7237762237762240.5747126436781610.149063580098063CenterMidwestlost
WOLCOTT, Jesse Paine0.7333333333333330.1964285714285710.536904761904762CenterMidwestlost
WOLFENDEN, James0.8181818181818180.3290441176470590.489137700534759CenterNorthlost
WOLVERTON, Charles Anderson0.5318181818181820.1291666666666670.402651515151515CenterNorthmissionary
WOODRUFF, Roy Orchard0.6916666666666670.6461538461538460.0455128205128206RightMidwestmissionary
WYMAN, Louis Crosby0.5003840245775730.2962328767123290.204151147865244CenterNorthgreatest

I then took the oppositional average of each member’s first two and last two congresses. 200 Republican Representatives or Senators met the threshold, having served at least eight congresses and averaged an opposition to U.S. foreign policy above 50% during the start of their careers. Of those 200, 132 of them finished their careers (last two congresses) with an opposition percentage below 50%.

However, looking at our members’ generational and ideological components makes for a more complicated picture. There is a strong trend toward political centrism among those that evolved into interventionism. Of those 132 who “flipped,” 91 were within the party’s moderate core. A mere 40 who turned into interventionists could be considered on the party’s right flank.

There also appears to be have been a robust generational component at play. Members of the Greatest and Silent generations seem to be over-represented among those right-of-center Republicans who started their careers as noninterventionists but drifted into interventionism.

200 Republicans from our sample started their careers as noninterventionists, having averaged 50% opposition to U.S. foreign policy. One hundred thirty-two of them would evolve into interventionists by the end of their career. Each dot represents a Republican Senator or Congressperson. The x-axis places them on a two-dimensional political spectrum. The y-axis places them on their mean opposition percentage upon ending their career; the lower the number, the lower the opposition. Each dot is colored by generational cohort: Progressive (1860-1882), Lost (1883-1900), Greatest (1901-1927), and Silent (1928-1945). Each dot is sized by the members starting oppositional average; the more significant the dot, the higher their starting opposition.

Plotting these members over time makes the evolution more apparent. Younger right-wing Republicans were considerably more likely to end their careers as interventionists despite beginning as noninterventionists.

Older right-wing noninterventionists largely stayed the course despite the events of the Cold War. Their attitudes appeared less prone to change due to the course of events or the presence of a Republican in the White House (Nixon or Eisenhower). Right-wing noninterventionists of the Missionary or Lost generations were over twice as likely to end their congressional careers as they started them, opposed to U.S. foreign policy. Nineteen of those members increased their opposition throughout their careers (as opposed to only seven centrists). Even among those that did moderate themselves, most did not finish far below the 50% threshold.

200 Republicans from our sample started their careers as noninterventionists, having averaged 50% opposition to U.S. foreign policy. One hundred thirty-two of them would evolve into interventionists by the end of their career. Each dot represents a Republican Senator or Congressperson. The x-axis plots each member by their final Congress served; the y-axis plots each member by their mean opposition at the end of their career. Each member is sized by the number of congresses served and colorized by their generation. The oppositional histories of right-wing Republicans of the Greatest and Silent generations appear to be motivated by the events of Vietnam. Their opposition to U.S. foreign policy did not survive the Vietnam era. However, their Old Right forebears largely stayed the course in their noninterventionism despite the events of the early Cold War. Conversely, the center of the GOP appears to have changed significantly due to U.S. entry into WWII and the Korean War.

Conversely, centrist Republicans evolved in their foreign policy thinking considerably earlier, either during or due to World War II and the Korean War. The thesis that holds that the GOP turned towards interventionism only holds true for the party’s moderate core.

However, the Republican right essentially held on to its noninterventionist worldview despite the occurrences of early the Cold War. The right flank of the GOP would not fully convert into interventionism until a new generation of conservatives took office.

The New Right’s early opposition to U.S. foreign policy was a mirage and was less rooted in principle than the “isolationism” of the Old Right. During the height of the Vietnam War, Republican opposition to U.S. foreign policy was often purely partisan. Members in the House and the Senate would often rationalize their desire to cut foreign aid and other programs because of the cost of fighting in Southeast Asia. There was also a desire among Republicans to obstruct the Johnson administration. For many Republicans, the military’s failure in Vietnam could be laid at the door of the White House. As such, the right’s generalized opposition to American foreign policy was a redirected frustration with the Vietnam War.

This contextual opposition is manifested in their voting records. There is a noticeable gap between the Republican party’s total foreign policy opposition v. their final vote opposition on the eve of the Vietnam War and through its escalation. Many Republicans would vote to cut funding or otherwise limit programs during floor amendments while ultimately voting “yay” on the final rollcall vote.

While such limited opposition was not new to the Vietnam era, its escalation suggests that GOP’s opposition to foreign policy became more political and less principled as a new generation of Republicans took office. Right-wing Republicans of the Missionary and Lost generations were considerably more likely to vote on principle and politics. Their opposition remained high throughout the early Cold War despite events and a Republican in the White House (Eisenhower, 1953-1961).

This figure depicts the average level of Republican opposition to U.S. foreign policy from the 74th Congress (1935-1937) until the 102nd Congress (1991-1993. The x-axis denotes the Congress, and the y-axis is the average level of opposition within that Congress. The graphic depicts two types of opposition. The first, shown in red, illustrates all oppositional votes to include rollcall votes on floor amendments meant to expand or contract foreign policy or defense programs. The second, depicted in blue, is for final rollcall votes only. The distance between the GOP’s total foreign policy opposition and its final vote opposition grew on the eve of the Vietnam War and remained high throughout the conflict. This suggests that the party softened its principled opposition to U.S. foreign policy.

This gap between principled and political opposition manifested itself on the campaign trail as well. In 1968, retired Republican representative Eugene Siler (K.Y.) decided to run for an open Senate seat vacated by Thurston Morton. Siler was the only dissenting vote within the U.S. House on the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Additionally, Siler opposed the legislative precursors explicitly mentioned in that resolution. He voted against the delegation of authority to the president to defend the Republic of China’s redoubt on the island of Formosa (Taiwan), one of only three representatives to vote no. He also opposed the Eisenhower Doctrine, which expanded the U.S. government’s footprint within the Middle East and delegated to the president the authority to use military force in the region. Siler is the only Representative to oppose all three. In addition to these landmarks, he consistently voted against measures that unilaterally vested power in the executive branch to make foreign policy decisions and opposed most U.S. foreign aid programs.

When Siler formerly accounted for his candidacy he led with a policy on Vietnam that called for a gradual withdrawal of all U.S. forces from the conflict. Siler also used his announcement to take shots at his assumed rivals, many of whom had become newfound opponents of the war. He quipped that “another ahead-of-my-time viewpoint I have maintained for several years is that we ought to be waging peace instead of war,” and added, “I never believed we should fight any wars except defensive ones.” After a winnowing of the field, the primary came down to Eugene Siler and lawyer Marlow Cook.

The juxtaposition between these two men was symbolic of the ideological, cultural, and generational divisions within the Republican Party. Cook (born, 1926), a former state legislator, was a transplant from upstate New York and resident of Kentucky’s largest city, Louisville. Siler was a native-born Kentuckian (1900) and a self-described hillbilly. Cook was Catholic, Siler was Protestant. The localities that these men represented were more than mere geographical regions but embodied the two power bases of the Kentucky GOP, one static and the other ascendant. Siler’s rural 5th district had for decades constituted the party’s predominant source of votes in statewide elections and had continuously sent a Republican representative to Washington for over 30 years. Cook’s Jefferson County (which contained Louisville) was one of the many growing suburban hubs of the Republican party and its New Right coalition.

Siler’s platform reflected the growing rift between the party’s two wings. Despite Siler’s opposition to Vietnam, his political views were outside the mainstream, even in a conservative state such as Kentucky. In addition to his opposition to war and foreign aid, Siler supported a balanced budget without caveats and advocated for the withdrawal of all U.S. forces stationed in Europe. Campaign watchers also considered Siler’s social and religious conservatism a political handicap. He was a proud teetotaler (a liability in a state known for its Bourbon), personally opposed divorce, and supported religious instruction in public schools. Cook lacked some of the conservative baggage exhibited by Siler but also dissented on the war in Vietnam (albeit for political reasons). Cook was initially noncommitted to the conflict. During an early debate between the two candidates, Siler declared the conflict “immoral and unconstitutional,” and Cook declined to comment due to ongoing negotiations.

Cook made his position clear as the campaign wore on, but it contrasted significantly to Siler’s. Like the outgoing Thurston Morton, he couched his opposition in the language of political frustration with the Johnson administration and its prosecution of the war. By May 1968, he advocated for withdrawal because the United States could not win “a war conducted by the State Department and Executive Branch.” If the military isn’t going to be allowed to win, “he declared, “we ought to get out.

Cook’s position was roughly corresponded to what the American which had grown weary of the war by 1968, as its cost in American blood and treasure mounted. Cook’s moderate domestic positions, coupled with a mainstream opposition to the war, meant that he courted a more comprehensive array of voters. His positions negated any political advantage that Siler might have from his antiwar stance.

As a result, Siler was soundly defeated by Marlow Cook on Tuesday, 28 May 1968. After spending 13 times as much on his campaign, Marlow Cook earned almost twice the votes. A lack of institutional party support further hamstrung Siler. Initial postmortems of his campaign from voters and local political commentators cited his age, conservatism, localism, and “peculiar brand of isolationism” as reasons for his defeat. Cook would beat his Democratic opponent, Katherine Peden, in the general election. From the 91st until 93rd Congresses, Cook posted a mere 32% opposition to U.S. foreign policy.

The divisiveness of the war in Vietnam and its association with the Johnson administration allowed moderates like Morton to assail the war without questioning its underlying assumptions, along with the political programs which preceded it. Meanwhile, Siler, who opposed the war from the start based on long-standing principles, was undercut and politically hamstrung by his conservative worldview.

A similar phenomenon occurred within the Democratic party. Elite members of the liberal establishment and the Democratic party argued that the failure of Vietnam ought not to be used to question the entirety of the American postwar empire and undermine “the cherished lessons of the thirties, [and] the war years.” In both parties, the Overton Window was narrowed, and the lessons of Vietnam were firmly attenuated into the realms of strategy or tactics, not moralism or constitutionality.

If we fast forward to those who entered office after the Vietnam War, we can see the generational transformation of the Republican party continued until right-wing noninterventionism was (almost) completely extinguished. Of the 349 Republicans from the Silent and Boomer generations who started their careers after the 90th Congress (1967-1969), only seven would post an opposition percentage above 50%. And, of them, none were Boomers, and only one of them, Ron Paul (Silent generation, born 1935), would serve into and beyond the Reagan era. During the Second Cold War, on the issue of foreign policy, younger Republicans voted more like Old Left Democrats than their conservative forebears.

RankPartyGenerationOpposition %NumberAvg. Birth Year% of Body
1Republicanboomer0.2543254641949.7660.03166749
2Republicansilent0.27832592611936.1260.12914399
3Republicangreatest0.2806877931921.2800.04601682
4Democratboomer0.3817476771949.1820.03809995
5Democratgreatest0.38797351241921.8150.06135576
6Democratsilent0.39627473131937.2940.1548738
After a wave of partisan Republican foreign policy opposition, later generations of the GOP settled into broad support for U.S. foreign policy goals during the Reagan era. Later Democratic opposition was elevated compared to the positions of the Old Left. However, they settled into a range just above the New Right.

So, what the hell happened? How is it that the center of the GOP was much more inclined to moderate itself due to the course of world events, while the Republican right was considerably less likely to do so? And why did it only transform after Vietnam?

Furthermore, why did it take a full generation for the Republican right to transform into interventionism, and why wasn’t the Old Right’s noninterventionism transmitted into later generations of conservatives?

I have a couple of hypotheses. First, is the “gatekeeping” function performed by conservative intellectuals like National Review’s William F. Buckley. Buckley exiled out of the conservative movement “ultra-right” figures like the John Birch Society, antiwar libertarians like Murray Rothbard, and radical individualists like Ayn Rand. Despite the flaws of these individuals, they all held on various heterodox (and prescient) ideas about the role of the U.S. in the world. The result of these purges was likely the expulsion of noninterventionism from the political and intellectual machinery of the emerging conservative movement.

A similar explanation may also lie with the machinations of Democratic presidents and regulatory agencies of the U.S. government. During the 1960s, the Federal Communications Commission used the politically motivated and selective enforcement of the Fairness Doctrine to undermine the first generation of conservative talk radio. Many of these radio commentators, like the controversial Dan Smoot, held on to deeply rooted noninterventionist ideas about foreign policy (despite their staunch anti-communism). The Internal Revenue Service also got in on the act and initiated politically motivated audits at the behest of President John F. Kennedy.

The combination of these purges and censorship, paired with the nationalization of the party politics, broke chains of transmission of noninterventionism within the political culture of the Republican right…or so goes my theory. Either way, the transformation of the Republican party was not merely a response to events but a long-term evolution of political culture between generations of political actors.

The goal now, for the sake of the dissertation, is to discover why…and how did these noninterventionist ideas survive their political exile.

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